Research Article
Open access
Published on 24 December 2024
Download pdf
Li,Z. (2024). The Influence of Educational Background on the Self-Identity of Chinese Otome Game Players: A Comparative Study between Higher Education and Non-higher Education Players. Journal of Education and Educational Policy Studies,3(1),9-23.
Export citation

The Influence of Educational Background on the Self-Identity of Chinese Otome Game Players: A Comparative Study between Higher Education and Non-higher Education Players

Zhuxinran Li *,1,
  • 1 University of York, Heslington, York, the United Kingdom

* Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.

https://doi.org/10.54254/3049-7248/2024.19268

Abstract

This study examines how educational background affects the self-identity of Chinese Otome gamers, focusing on professional identity and intimacy ideals. Under the guidance of Erikson's self-identity theory, the study contributes to the extension of Erikson's self-identity theory in the context of East Asia as a case study. Applying qualitative methods, the study collects data through 13 in-depth interviews with participants with different educational levels, leading to the discussion in the context of Chinese social characteristics. The findings show that players with lower educational backgrounds are more inclined to explore diverse occupational roles in the game and are more attracted to roles with power. On the contrary, players with higher educational backgrounds tend to map out clearer career paths and regard gaming primarily as an emotional connection rather than career exploration. When it comes to intimacy, players with higher education prioritize emotional bonds and choose characters that fit the values of depth and stability. Meanwhile, the other group in this study prefer characters of higher economic or social status, reflecting traditional ideals of security and support. The study bridges the gap between Erikson's theory of self-identity as applied in the East Asian context and the lack of education level as a variable to be discussed in the field of Otome games. The results highlight the role of Otome games in influencing players' self-identity and emphasize the potential for designing games that offer diverse character exploration and emotional engagement in the future.

Keywords

Otome Game,self-identity,Chinese players,occupational identity, intimacy components

[1]. Abbas, E., & Ferdoos, A. (2022). Uncovering the Preferences of Highly Qualified Women during Spouse Selection from District Skardu–Gilgit Baltistan Pakistan. Pakistan Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences, 10(2), 613-625.

[2]. Adlya, S. I., & Zola, N. (2022). Holland’s Theory to Guiding Individual Career Choices. Jurnal Neo Konseling, 4(4), 30.

[3]. Ai, J., Cross, B., & Bignell, C. (2023). The Construction of Gamer Identity in Narratives about Video Game Playing and Formal Education Learning Experiences. Research in Learning Technology, 31, 2852.

[4]. Alicia D. Cast, &Peter J. Burke.(2002). A Theory of Self-Esteem, Social Forces, 80(3),1041–1068, https://doi.org/10.1353/sof.2002.0003

[5]. Antwi, S. K., & Hamza, K. (2015). Qualitative and quantitative research paradigms in business research: A philosophical reflection. European journal of business and management, 7(3), 217-225.

[6]. Barab, S. A., Hay, K. E., Songer, N. B., & Hickey, D. T. (2017). Making a Difference: Volume I and II. Routledge.

[7]. Belanger, C. (1996). Women, work, and gender relations in developing countries.

[8]. Beyers, W., & Seiffge-Krenke, I. (2010). Does Identity Precede Intimacy? Testing Erikson’s Theory on Romantic Development in Emerging Adults of the 21st Century. Journal of Adolescent Research, 25(3), 387-415. https://doi.org/10.1177/0743558410361370

[9]. Bimbrose, J., Brown, A., & Barnes, S. A. (2008). Researching careers, learning and identities: Career attachments as anchors or chains?. Perspectives in Education, 26(3).

[10]. Bloom, T. J. (2022). Understanding professionalism’s interplay between the profession’s identity and one’s professional identity. American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education, 86(9).

[11]. Blustein, D. L., & Noumair, D. A. (1996). Self and identity in career development: Implications for theory and practice. Journal of Counseling & Development, 74(5), 433-441.

[12]. Brown, E., & Cairns, P. (2004). A grounded investigation of game immersion. In CHI'04 extended abstracts on Human factors in computing systems (pp. 1297-1300).

[13]. Bruze, G. (2011). Marriage choices of movie stars: does spouse’s education matter?. Journal of Human Capital, 5(1), 1-28.

[14]. Burgess, J., & Jones, C. (2020). The female video game player-character persona and emotional attachment. Persona Studies, 6(2), 7-21.

[15]. Burkitt, I. (1994). The shifting concept of the self. History of the Human Sciences, 7(2), 7-28. https://doi.org/10.1177/095269519400700202

[16]. Carstensdottir, E., Kleinman, E., Williams, R., & Seif El-Nasr, M. S. (2021). ”Naked and on Fire”: Examining Player Agency Experiences in Narrative-Focused Gameplay. In Proceedings of the 2021 CHI conference on human factors in computing systems,1-13.

[17]. Chen, F.S. (2014). ‘Male dominant, female dominant?’ --Talking about the changing roles of husband and wife.

[18]. Christman, J. (2006). Autonomy, Gender, Politics.

[19]. Connell, R. W., & Messerschmidt, J. W. (2005). Hegemonic Masculinity: Rethinking the Concept. Gender & Society, 19(6), 829-859. https://doi.org/10.1177/0891243205278639

[20]. DANIELSEN, L. M., LOREM, A. E., & KROGER, J. (2000). The Impact of Social Context on the Identity-Formation Process of Norwegian Late Adolescents. Youth & Society, 31(3), 332-362. https://doi.org/10.1177/0044118X00031003004

[21]. Dietz, B. E. (1996). The relationship of aging to self-esteem: The relative effects of maturation and role accumulation. The International Journal of Aging and Human Development, 43(3), 249-266.

[22]. Dun, T. (2008). Communication and self-expansion: Perceptions of changes in the self due to a close relationship. Interpersona: An International Journal on Personal Relationships, 2(1), 103-126.

[23]. Elmes, M. (2014). Careers, Identity, and the Transition from Academia. Organization Management Journal, 11(4), 272. https://doi.org/10.1080/15416518.2014.978724

[24]. Erikson, E. H. (1968). Identity Youth and Crisis.

[25]. Erwin, T. D. (1982). Academic Status as Related to the Development of Identity. The Journal of Psychology, 110(2), 163–169. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223980.1982.9915337

[26]. Festinger, L. (1954). A Theory of Social Comparison Processes. Human Relations, 7(2), 117-140. https://doi.org/10.1177/001872675400700202

[27]. Fitch, S. A., & Adams, G. R. (1983). Ego identity and intimacy status: Replication and extension. Developmental Psychology, 19(6), 839–845. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.19.6.839

[28]. Gilligan, C. (2009). In a different voice: Psychological theory and women’s development. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctvjk2wr9

[29]. Goltz, H. H., & Smith, M. L. (2014). Forming and developing your professional identity: Easy as PI. Health promotion practice, 15(6), 785-789.

[30]. Green, C. L., Walker, J. M., Hoover-Dempsey, K. V., & Sandler, H. M. (2007). Parents' motivations for involvement in children's education: An empirical test of a theoretical model of parental involvement. Journal of educational psychology, 99(3), 532.

[31]. Greif, A. (1998). Cultural beliefs and the organization of society: A historical and theoretical reflection on collectivist and individualist societies. The new institutionalism in sociology, 77, 427-439.

[32]. Guerra, A. L., & Braungart‐Rieker, J. M. (1999). Predicting career indecision in college students: The roles of identity formation and parental relationship factors. The career development quarterly, 47(3), 255-266.

[33]. Gui, T. (2020). “Leftover Women” or Single by Choice: Gender Role Negotiation of Single Professional Women in Contemporary China. Journal of Family Issues, 41(11), 1956-1978. https://doi.org/10.1177/0192513X20943919

[34]. HENG, S., ZHAO, H., FAN, C., & ZHOU, Z. (2020). The impacts of virtual avatar in video game on users’ self-concept. Advances in Psychological Science, 28(5), 810.

[35]. Hirschi, A. (2011). Vocational identity as a mediator of the relationship between core self‐evaluations and life and job satisfaction. Applied Psychology, 60(4), 622-644.

[36]. Hollander, D. (2005). Traditional gender roles and intimate partner violence linked in China. International family planning perspectives, 31 1, 46-7.

[37]. Horton, J., Macve, R., & Struyven, G. (2004). Qualitative research: experiences in using semi-structured interviews. In The real life guide to accounting research (pp. 339-357). Elsevier.

[38]. Howard, C., & Davies, P. (2012). Attracting mature students into higher education: The impact of approaches to learning and social identity. Journal of Further and Higher Education, 37(6), 769–785. https://doi.org/10.1080/0309877X.2012.684038

[39]. Huan, Y. (2022). Female representation in Chinese Otome games: Comparative research on three famous games from 2017 to 2021. In 2021 International Conference on Education, Language and Art (ICELA 2021) (pp. 964-970). Atlantis Press.

[40]. Jackson, C. (2003). Transitions into Higher Education: Gendered implications for academic self-concept. Oxford Review of Education, 29(3), 331–346. https://doi.org/10.1080/03054980307448

[41]. Jing, S. (2018). From Silent NPC to Active Consumer : Representing Female in Chinese Video Game Culture.

[42]. Jixin, L. (1989). What Kind of Work Do Women Want to Do? Chinese Education, 22(2), 38–39. https://doi.org/10.2753/CED1061-1932220238

[43]. Justin T. Sokol.(2009). Identity Development Throughout the Lifetime: An Examination of Eriksonian Theory. Graduate Journal of Counseling Pychology,1(2).

[44]. Kazakova, S., Cauberghe, V., Pandelaere, M., & De Pelsmacker, P. (2014). Players' expertise and competition with others shape the satisfaction of competence needs, gaming gratifications, and contingent self-esteem in a gaming context. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 17(1), 26-32.

[45]. Kerpelman, J. L., & Pittman, J. F. (2018). Erikson and the Relational Context of Identity: Strengthening Connections With Attachment Theory. Identity, 18(4), 306–314. https://doi.org/10.1080/15283488.2018.1523726

[46]. Khairunnisa, A. (2020). Analysis of Suitability Between Professions and Educational Backgrounds (Preliminary Study of Professional Identity). In 4th Asian Education Symposium (AES 2019) (pp. 10-13). Atlantis Press.

[47]. Kim, J. Y. (2016). Differential effect of marriage on depression by education levels: A longitudinal analysis. Korean Journal of Sociology, 22(5), 173-201.

[48]. Koike, M., Loughnan, S., Stanton, S. C., & Ban, M. (2020). What factors attract people to play romantic video games?. Plos one, 15(4), e0231535.

[49]. Lai, Z., & Liu, T. (2024). “Protecting our female gaze rights”: Chinese Female Gamers’ and Game Producers’ Negotiations with Government Restrictions on Erotic Material. Games and Culture, 19(1), 3-23. https://doi.org/10.1177/15554120231151300

[50]. Lee, M. K. (2014). Study of the effect of career preparation and career maturity on employment among Specialized high school graduates. Journal of the Korea Academia-Industrial cooperation Society, 15(8), 4961-4971.

[51]. Lewis, J. A., Raque-Bogdan, T. L., Lee, S., & Rao, M. A. (2018). Examining the Role of Ethnic Identity and Meaning in Life on Career Decision-Making Self-Efficacy. Journal of Career Development, 45(1), 68-82. https://doi.org/10.1177/0894845317696803

[52]. Li, M., Fan, W., Cheung, F. M., & Wang, Q. (2019). Reciprocal associations between career self-efficacy and vocational identity: A three-wave longitudinal study. Journal of Career Assessment, 27(4), 645-660.

[53]. Liao, G. Y., Cheng, T. C. E., & Teng, C. I. (2019). How do avatar attractiveness and customization impact online gamers’ flow and loyalty?. Internet Research, 29(2), 349-366.

[54]. Lischewski, J., Seeber, S., Wuttke, E., & Rosemann, T. (2020). What influences participation in non-formal and informal modes of continuous vocational education and training? An analysis of individual and institutional influencing factors. Frontiers in psychology, 11, 534485.

[55]. Liu, T., & Lai, Z. (2020). From non-player characters to othered participants: Chinese women’s gaming experience in the ‘free’ digital market. Information, Communication & Society, 25(3), 376–394. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369118X.2020.1791217

[56]. Louis L. Lunsky, M. (1966). Identity and the life cycle.Arch Intern Med,118(3),288-289.https://doi:10.1001/archinte.1966.00290150102025

[57]. Lukosch, H., Kurapati, S., Groen, D., & Verbraeck, A. (2017). Gender and Cultural Differences in Game-Based Learning Experiences. Electronic Journal of e-Learning, 15, 310-319.

[58]. Luyckx, K., Schwartz, S. J., Goossens, L., & Pollock, S. (2008). Employment, Sense of Coherence, and Identity Formation: Contextual and Psychological Processes on the Pathway to Sense of Adulthood. Journal of Adolescent Research, 23(5), 566-591. https://doi.org/10.1177/0743558408322146

[59]. Marcia, J. E. (1966). Development and validation of ego-identity status. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 3(5), 551–558. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0023281

[60]. Markstrom, C. A., & Kalmanir, H. M. (2001). Linkages Between the Psychosocial Stages of Identity and Intimacy and the Ego Strengths of Fidelity and Love. Identity, 1(2), 179–196. https://doi.org/10.1207/S1532706XID0102_05

[61]. McErlean, K. (2024). Cohabiting couple's economic organization and marriage patterns across social classes. Journal of Marriage and Family, 86(3), 762-786.

[62]. McIntosh, M. (1991). [Review of Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity, by J. Butler]. Feminist Review, 38, 113–114. https://doi.org/10.2307/1395391

[63]. McKinnon-Crowley, S. (2020). Fighting Gendered Battles: On Being a Woman in a Contemporary Gaming Community. Journal of Contemporary Ethnography, 49(1), 118-142. https://doi.org/10.1177/0891241619864405

[64]. Mi, S.S. (2003). Variations of Western Feminist Ideas. Theory Journal.

[65]. Nielsen, H. S., & Svarer, M. (2006). Educational Homogamy: Preferences or Opportunities?University of Aarhus Department of Economics Working Paper,2006(10).

[66]. Nielsen, H. S., & Svarer, M. (2009). Educational homogamy: How much is opportunities?. Journal of Human Resources, 44(4), 1066-1086.

[67]. Ochse, R., & Plug, C. (1986). Cross-cultural investigation of the validity of Erikson's theory of personality development. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 50(6), 1240–1252. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.50.6.1240

[68]. Øverup, C. S., & Neighbors, C. (2016). Self-presentation as a function of perceived closeness and trust with romantic partners, friends, and acquaintances. The Journal of Social Psychology, 156(6), 630–647. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224545.2016.1152215

[69]. Page, B. (1999). Hamlet on the Holodeck: The future of narrative in cyberspace. MFS Modern Fiction Studies, 45(2), 553-556.

[70]. Peil, M. (1973). The Influence of Formal Education on Occupational Choice. Canadian Journal of African Studies / Revue Canadienne Des Études Africaines, 7(2), 199–214. https://doi.org/10.1080/00083968.1973.10803694

[71]. Perry, J. B. (1965). Review of Childhood and Society, by E. H. Erikson. Journal of Marriage and Family, 27(1), 115–116. https://doi.org/10.2307/349827

[72]. Pratt, M. G., Rockmann, K. W., & Kaufmann, J. B. (2006). Constructing professional identity: The role of work and identity learning cycles in the customization of identity among medical residents. Academy of management journal, 49(2), 235-262.

[73]. Proudfoot, D., & Kay, A. C. (2023). Communal expectations conflict with autonomy motives: The western drive for autonomy shapes women’s negative responses to positive gender stereotypes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 124(1), 1–21. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspa0000311

[74]. Pyae, A., Zaw, H. H., & Khine, M. T. (2018). Understanding the impact of cultural contents in digital games on players' engagement, enjoyment, and motivation in gameplay. In Proceedings of the 30th Australian Conference on Computer-Human Interaction (pp. 83-87).

[75]. Qin, J. (2011). Analysis on Erikson's Self-identity Theory. Journal of Huaihua University.

[76]. Ratan, R., Chen, V. H. H., De Grove, F., Breuer, J., Quandt, T., & Williams, J. P. (2021). Gender, gaming motives, and genre: comparing Singaporean, German, and American players. IEEE Transactions on Games, 14(3), 456-465.

[77]. Rogers, L. O. (2018). Who Am I, Who Are We? Erikson and a Transactional Approach to Identity Research. Identity, 18(4), 284–294. https://doi.org/10.1080/15283488.2018.1523728

[78]. Royse, P., Lee, J., Undrahbuyan, B., Hopson, M., & Consalvo, M. (2007). Women and games: technologies of the gendered self. New Media & Society, 9(4), 555-576. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444807080322

[79]. Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55(1), 68–78. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.68

[80]. Schachter, E. P. (2005). Erikson Meets the Postmodern: Can Classic Identity Theory Rise to the Challenge? Identity, 5(2), 137–160. https://doi.org/10.1207/s1532706xid0502_4

[81]. Schachter, E. P. (2018). Intergenerational, Unconscious, and Embodied: Three Underdeveloped Aspects of Erikson’s Theory of Identity. Identity, 18(4), 315–324. https://doi.org/10.1080/15283488.2018.1523731

[82]. Schachter, E. P., & Galliher, R. V. (2018). Fifty Years Since “Identity: Youth and Crisis”: A Renewed Look at Erikson’s Writings on Identity. Identity, 18(4), 247–250.

[83]. Shoebridge, A. (2012). Single Women: A History of Misogyny.

[84]. Simac, J., Marcus, R., & Harper, C. (2019). Does non-formal education have lasting effects? Compare: A Journal of Comparative and International Education, 51(5), 706–724.https://doi.org/10.1080/03057925.2019.1669011

[85]. Sommerseth, H. (2007). "Gamic Realism": Player, Perception and Action in Video Game Play. DiGRA Conference.

[86]. Squire, K. (2002). Cultural Framing of Computer/Video Games. Game Stud., 2.

[87]. Syed, M., & Fish, J. (2018). Revisiting Erik Erikson’s Legacy on Culture, Race, and Ethnicity. Identity, 18(4), 274–283. https://doi.org/10.1080/15283488.2018.1523729

[88]. Teng, C. I. (2019). How avatars create identification and loyalty among online gamers: contextualization of self-affirmation theory. Internet Research, 29(6), 1443-1468.

[89]. Trautwein, U., Lüdtke, O., Köller, O., & Baumert, J. (2006). Self-esteem, academic self-concept, and achievement: How the learning environment moderates the dynamics of self-concept. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 90(2), 334–349. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.90.2.334

[90]. Trevithick, P. (2018). The ‘self’and ‘use of self’in social work: A contribution to the development of a coherent theoretical framework. The British Journal of Social Work, 48(7), 1836-1854.

[91]. Truluck, J. E., & Courtenay, B. C. (2002). EGO DEVELOPMENT AND THE INFLUENCE OF GENDER, AGE, AND EDUCATIONAL LEVELS AMONG OLDER ADULTS. Educational Gerontology, 28(4), 325–336. https://doi.org/10.1080/036012702753590433

[92]. Turkay, S. & Kinzer, C. K. (2014). The Effects of Avatar-Based Customization on Player Identification. International Journal of Gaming and Computer-Mediated Simulations (IJGCMS), 6(1), 1-25. http://doi.org/10.4018/ijgcms.2014010101

[93]. Van der Heijden, H. (2004). User acceptance of hedonic information systems. MIS quarterly, 695-704.

[94]. Wallinheimo, A.-S., Hosein, A., Barrie, D., Chernyavskiy, A., Agafonova, I., & Williams, P. (2023). How Online Gaming Could Enhance Your Career Prospects. Simulation & Gaming, 54(1), 28-44. https://doi.org/10.1177/10468781221137361

[95]. Wang, Y., & Hao, X. (2022). Virtual nexus: Female players’ emotional attachment in a role-playing video game. Convergence, 28(2), 488-505. https://doi.org/10.1177/13548565221089212

[96]. Weigert, A. J., & Gecas, V. (2005). Symbolic Interactionist Reflections on Erikson, Identity, and Postmodernism. Identity, 5(2), 161–174. https://doi.org/10.1207/s1532706xid0502_5

[97]. Wu, S., Xu, L., Dai, Z., & Pan, Y. (2023). Factors affecting avatar customization behavior in virtual environments. Electronics, 12(10), 2286.

[98]. Yan, R. (2011). Modern Chinese Marriage:Changes & Reasons.

[99]. Yee, N. (2006). Motivations for play in online games. CyberPsychology & behavior, 9(6), 772-775.

[100]. Yee, N. (2006). The demographics, motivations, and derived experiences of users of massively multi-user online graphical environments. Presence: Teleoperators and virtual environments, 15(3), 309-329.

[101]. Yi, J. (2009). On the inherent mechanism of emancipation of the mind. Social Sciences in China, 30(1), 68–82. https://doi.org/10.1080/02529200802703862

[102]. Yoon, T.-J., & Cheon, H. (2014). Game playing as transnational cultural practice: A case study of Chinese gamers and Korean MMORPGs. International Journal of Cultural Studies, 17(5), 469-483. https://doi.org/10.1177/1367877913505172

[103]. Žemaitaitytė, I. (2003). Non-formal adult education as a factor for the socialization of adult. Social Work, 1, 72-80.

[104]. Zhang, K.M.(2013). Gorgeous, True, Lost: Female Same-Sex Love in Yan Geling's Writings.

[105]. Zhang, Y. (2023). Research on the Display of Female Elements by Chinese Online Game Female Players on the Social Media Platform Xiaohongshu. BCP Social Sciences & Humanities, 21, 644-652. https://doi.org/10.54691/bcpssh.v21i.3653

[106]. Zhao, X. (2023). Chinese Female Individual Independence and Fertility Desire----from the Perspective of Feminism. Journal of Education, Humanities and Social Sciences, 24, 372-378.

[107]. Zhou, S. (2010). Women's Independence in Jane Eyre.

[108]. Zhou,Y.J.(2020). An experimental study of the effect of the use of speech-to-text software on MTI students' performance in Chinese-English communicative communication. China Foreign Affairs University.

[109]. Царско, А. А. (2023). Игровой тренинг как эффективное средство выбора профессии старшеклассниками поколения Z. Научно-педагогическое обозрение. Pedagogical Review, (2 (48)), 37-47.

Cite this article

Li,Z. (2024). The Influence of Educational Background on the Self-Identity of Chinese Otome Game Players: A Comparative Study between Higher Education and Non-higher Education Players. Journal of Education and Educational Policy Studies,3(1),9-23.

Data availability

The datasets used and/or analyzed during the current study will be available from the authors upon reasonable request.

Disclaimer/Publisher's Note

The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of EWA Publishing and/or the editor(s). EWA Publishing and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.

About volume

Journal:Journal of Education and Educational Policy Studies

Volume number: Vol.3
ISSN:3049-7248(Print) / 3049-7256(Online)

© 2024 by the author(s). Licensee EWA Publishing, Oxford, UK. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license. Authors who publish this series agree to the following terms:
1. Authors retain copyright and grant the series right of first publication with the work simultaneously licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution License that allows others to share the work with an acknowledgment of the work's authorship and initial publication in this series.
2. Authors are able to enter into separate, additional contractual arrangements for the non-exclusive distribution of the series's published version of the work (e.g., post it to an institutional repository or publish it in a book), with an acknowledgment of its initial publication in this series.
3. Authors are permitted and encouraged to post their work online (e.g., in institutional repositories or on their website) prior to and during the submission process, as it can lead to productive exchanges, as well as earlier and greater citation of published work (See Open access policy for details).