1.  Introduction

Globally, depression affects approximately 332 million people, or about 4% of the world’s population; depression is estimated to occur among 1.3% of adolescents aged 10-14 years, and 3.4% of 15-19 year olds [1]. Depression can cause numerous physical symptoms, including fatigue, pain, changes in appetite and weight, digestive problems, and sleep disturbances (e.g., insomnia or hypersomnia). It also increases the risk for chronic conditions like heart disease, diabetes and stroke. Depression can also affect people’s mental health negatively, which includes symptoms like persistent feelings of hopelessness, sadness, irritability, a loss of interest in previously enjoyed activities, and difficulties with concentration, decision making and memory. Other common psychological impacts are reduced sense of self worth, excessive guilt, anxiety, decreased academic or work performance, social withdraw and impaired relationship issues. In its most extreme form, depression may lead to self-harm or suicide. We can see that depression not only affects people physically but also psychologically; it affects people with depression as well as people around them. Thus, identifying factors contributing to depression and developing preventive strategies are critical priorities. One of the factors we will be looking at is parenting styles and their influence on adolescents with depression. The purpose of this research study is to evaluate the relationship between parenting styles and their effects on adolescents with depression. From the result of this study, we will be able to differentiate different types of parenting styles—what kind of parenting style is beneficial for the development of adolescents and what is not—so that parents can utilize good parenting styles to educate their adolescents effectively, particularly for adolescent adolescents. And with the good use of parenting style, parents are able to intervene and help their adolescents who are prone to depressive symptoms.

2.  Types of parenting styles

As shown in Table 1, High demandingness and high responsiveness result in authoritative parenting; high demandingness and low responsiveness result in authoritarian parenting; low demandingness and high responsiveness contribute to permissive parenting while low demandingness and low responsiveness contribute to uninvolved parenting.

2.1.  Authoritarian parenting

Parents adopting an authoritarian style establish strict rules that adolescents are expected to follow without negotiation; they tend to be less nurturing, and understanding, and are more likely to set high standards for their adolescents with limited flexibility. For example, they may expect perfect grades without considering individual differences or external factors.

Adolescents who are raised with authoritarian parenting often exhibit well-behaved behaviors due to the consequences of misbehavior; they are more likely to follow instruction effectively to achieve their goals. However, this style has notable drawbacks: adolescents may display aggression, shyness, poor social skills, and difficulties with decision-making. In addition, adolescents raised with an authoritarian parenting style tend to have lower self-esteem. And those adolescents are more likely to rebel against authority figures when they get older.

2.2.  Authoritative parenting

Authoritative parenting is characterized by an open, nurturing relationship between parents and adolescent; parents set clear goals and explain the reasons behind them to their adolescent so that the adolescent can better understand the goal. Parents with an authoritative parenting style use disciplinary tools as a support system rather than as punishment. Adolescents are allowed to express their own opinions during the goal-setting process, which fosters open, frequent, healthy communication between parents and adolescents.

Adolescents raised with authoritative parenting tend to demonstrate high confidence, self-esteem, responsibility, and self-regulation. They tend to manage their emotions more effectively and are more likely to excel academically [2].

2.3.  Permissive parenting

Permissive parenting shares some similarities with authoritative parenting, as both emphasize open parent-child communication; adolescents are free to express their own ideas and to navigate the situation independently. And parents with these styles are often warm and nurturing; they listen to their adolescent and understand them. But what makes permissive parenting different from authoritative parenting is that a clear goal is established in authoritative parenting, while there is no goal or expectation set in permissive parenting. Parents with a permissive parenting style do not set the goal for their adolescent; they allow their adolescent to make decisions by themselves and do things in their own way. Parents with a permissive parenting style act more like friends with their adolescent than traditional parents.

Permissive parenting offers adolescents considerable freedom, which allows adolescents to make decisions by themselves, such as their bedtime, eating habits, homework, and screen time on computers or television. This considerate freedom can result in some negative consequences. For example, adolescents raised with a permissive parenting style tend to develop unhealthy eating habits, especially regarding snacking, which increases their risk of obesity or other health issues later in life [3].

2.4.  Uninvolved parenting

Uninvolved parents typically adopt a hands-off approach, remaining emotionally detached and disengaged from their child’s life. Uninvolved parents do not set the disciplinary rules for their adolescent, and they often maintain limited communication with their adolescent. Adolescents raised up with an uninvolved parenting style may struggle with emotional regulation, cope with stress ineffectively, face academic challenges, and have difficulty in maintaining social relationships.

3.  Parenting styles and their effects on adolescents with depression

Authoritarian Parenting: Authoritarian parenting induces stress in adolescents by creating a highly controlled environment lacking emotional support and freedom of decision-making. Adolescents raised with this style often experience high stress levels, as they struggle to meet their parents’ expectations while worrying about failing to meet those standards. This consistent stress from authoritarian parenting affects adolescents’ mental health tremendously; adolescents under authoritarian parenting report lower levels of emotional health, self-esteem, and social interaction, alongside high levels of anxiety and emotional distress [4]. Prefrontal cortex, as we all know, is the main area for emotional regulation. Long-term stress from authoritarian parenting will affect the normal function of the prefrontal cortex, which in turn influences the way people cope with emotion.

Authoritarian parenting can also cause low self-esteem, anxiety, and even depression in adolescents. Its low-warmth environment leaves little room for communication between parents and adolescents; adolescents are not encouraged to express their own opinions in decision-making.

Several research studies have shown the positive correlation between authoritarian parenting and depression in adolescents. One study was conducted to test the relationship between authoritarian parenting and its relationship with depression among adolescents. The study sample includes 158 students (ages 13 to 15 years old) in one of the schools in Bandar, Barubangi, Selangor. Participants were divided into three age groups: 14 (21), 15 (58), and 16 (79). Students were asked to complete a survey called PAQ (parental authority questionnaire), which consists of 30 questions. The result of the study showed a significant positive relationship between authoritarian parenting style and depression in adolescents with the r value 0.252 (permissive parenting r=0.413, authoritative parenting r=-0.366) Besides that, the study also found a positive relationship between authoritarian parenting style and dimensions of dysphoric mood, anhedonia, negative self-evaluation, and somatic complaints [5].

Authoritative Parenting: Authoritative parenting plays a critical role in an adolescent’s development, especially during adolescence. This type of parenting style fosters a healthy, warm, nurturing relationship between parents and adolescents by emphasizing the importance of clear boundaries and independence. Adolescents raised with this style are encouraged to express their ideas and participate in joint decision-making with their parents.

Authoritative parenting affects adolescents’ mental health positively by affecting the prefrontal cortex; it fosters the development of executive functions such as decision-making and impulse control. And it also promotes healthier neural circuits related to emotional regulation [6]. Some benefits include strong academic performance, good emotional regulation, high self-esteem, and positive social skills. And this style can also help adolescents develop good problem-solving abilities, critical thinking, and resilience.

There is also a negative correlation between authoritative parenting and depression among adolescents. One study was conducted showing that a positive parenting style is associated with fewer depressive symptoms among adolescents, while a negative parenting style and parental lifeline depression are associated with more depressive symptoms among adolescents [7].

Permissive Parenting: Permissive parenting grants adolescents excessive freedom, and adolescents are able to make their own decisions. Parents with permissive parenting act more like friends than traditional parents with their adolescent.

However, this style can lead to numerous developmental problems. For instance, it may contribute to behavioral issues such as excessive screen time and unhealthy eating habits—factors that increase adolescents’ risk of mental health problems like depression [8].

In addition, permissive parenting can also lead to emotional detachment from parents due to the lack of structure, discipline and consistent communication between parents and adolescents, which makes adolescents feel unsupported, isolated and lonely. This long term condition will have a negative influence on adolescents’ mental health such as the development of mental disorders.

There is a positive correlation between permissive parenting style and depressive symptoms among adolescents. One study was conducted to test the influences of parenting styles on depression, anxiety, stress and self-esteem of adolescents. The sample size consisted of 58 students aged below 18 years old in Kathmandu Metropolitan. Researchers used the Depression, Anxiety, and Stress Scale-21 (DASS-21) to assess adolescent depression and the Parenting Style and Dimension Questionnaire (PSDQ) to measure parenting styles. The result of the study showed that permissive parenting as well as authoritarian parenting are significantly positively related to depression symptoms among adolescents; with the increase of permissive/authoritarian parenting, the depression level among teens also increased, whereas authoritative parenting is negatively related to adolescent depression [9].

Uninvolved Parenting: Uninvolved parenting has more severe negative impacts on adolescent development compared to the other three styles. Parents with this type of style do not respond to their child’s needs or desires beyond the basics of food, clothing and shelter. Adolescents raised with uninvolved parenting receive little guidance, discipline, warmth, or attention, and are often left to raise themselves and make decisions independently. They frequently feel emotionally isolated and unsupported.

Uninvolved parenting obviously has negative impacts on adolescents’ mental health due to lack of love, nurturing, discipline, guidance and attention. Adolescents with uninvolved parenting tend to have low self-esteem, anxiety, depression, and emotional detachment. They also struggle with social skills, academic performance, impulse control, trust issues and boundary problems.

Uninvolved parenting is positively related to depressive symptoms among adolescents. Adolescents and adolescents with uninvolved parents have more depressive symptoms and lower psychological well-being than those with authoritative parents [10].

Parenting styles influence how adolescents interact with people around them. Adolescents with authoritative parents are more likely to have strong social skills and empathy due to the influence of open, warm communication between them and their parents. They understand the importance of communication and know how to communicate with others effectively. However, adolescents with authoritarian parents tend to have low social skills because of the way they were raised up, in which they obey their parents and do things they are told to do. A open, clear communication between parents and adolescents is often lacking, and they are not encouraged to express their feelings and ideas. When adolescents with authoritarian parents grow older, they often have difficulties in communicating with others. Adolescents with permissive parenting also tend to have low social skills due to the way they were raised up, with considerate freedom given by their parents, and adolescents make their own decisions most of the time. Permissive parenting leads to a lack of self-discipline, difficulty in understanding social boundaries, and increased selfishness and entitlement, which plays a negative role when it comes to relationship development. Finally, uninvolved parenting negatively impacts social skills: adolescents raised with this style tend to have poor social competence and difficulty forming relationships.

4.  Conclusion

In sum, different types of parenting styles influence adolescent development differently especially when it comes to adolescents with depressive symptoms. Authoritative parenting is negatively correlated with depressive symptoms, as it enhances the function of the prefrontal cortex. In contrast, authoritarian, permissive, and uninvolved parenting are positively correlated with depressive symptoms, as they impair the structure and function of the prefrontal cortex.