
Cultivating "Masculinity": Where Does China's Anxiety about Masculinity Come From?
- 1 Northwest Catholic High School
* Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Abstract
China's Education Minister recently called for educating teenagers to be "masculine" by highlighting the "crisis of masculinity." This paper intends to examine the causes and impact of this initiative by exploring the cultural and societal factors. Drawing on academic literature, media reports, and government policy documents, the paper identifies the main causes of anxiety in China about masculinity from two perspectives: 1) The increasing participation of Chinese women in the workplace and 2) The trend of feminization and its relationship to collectivism. Finally, the paper discusses the negative consequences of overemphasizing the "crisis of masculinity" in China, particularly on mental health issues, domestic violence, and gender stereotypes. This paper offers insights into promoting a more diverse and inclusive gender-equal society.
Keywords
China, masculinity, crisis
[1]. Connell, R. W., & Messerschmidt, J. W. (2005). Hegemonic masculinity: Rethinking the concept. Gender & Society, 19(6), 829–859.
[2]. Bederman, G. (2008). Manliness and civilization: A cultural history of gender and race in the United States, 1880-1917. University of Chicago Press.
[3]. Louie, K. (2014). Chinese masculinities in a globalizing world. Routledge.
[4]. Jankowiak, W., & Li, X. (2014). The decline of the chauvinistic model of Chinese masculinity: A research report. Chinese Sociological Review, 46(4), 3–18.
[5]. Morgan, D. (2006). The crisis in masculinity. Handbook of Gender and Women’s Studies, 109–124.
[6]. China to teach masculinity to boys because of changing gender roles. (2021, March 5). NBC News. https://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/china-proposes-teaching-masculinity-boys-state-alarmed-changing-gender-roles-n1258939
[7]. Zheng, T. (2015). Masculinity in crisis: Effeminate men, loss of manhood, and the nation-state in postsocialist China. Etnográfica. Revista Do Centro Em Rede de Investigação Em Antropologia, 19(2)), 347–365.
[8]. Da, W.-W. (2004). A regional tradition of gender equity: Shanghai men in Sydney, Australia. The Journal of Men’s Studies, 12(2), 133–149.
[9]. Connell, R. (2020). The social organization of masculinity. In Feminist Theory Reader (pp. 192–200). Routledge.
[10]. Sun, L. 1994. Congjian xingbie juese guanxi [Reconstructing Gender Roles and Relation] Shehuixue Yanjiu [Studies in Sociology] 9(6): 65–68.
[11]. Li, X. 1995. ‘Nannü pingdeng’: zai zhongguo shehui shijian zhong de shi yu de [Gender Equality: Losses and Gains in Social Practices in China]. Shehuixue Yanjiu [Studies in Sociology] 10(1): 92–97.
[12]. Yang, J. (2010). The crisis of masculinity: Class, gender, and kindly power in post-Mao China. American Ethnologist, 37(3), 550–562.
[13]. Gonalons-Pons, P., & Gangl, M. (2021). Marriage and masculinity: male-breadwinner culture, unemployment, and separation risk in 29 countries. American Sociological Review, 86(3), 465-502.
[14]. Zhong, X. (2000). Masculinity besieged?: Issues of modernity and male subjectivity in Chinese literature of the late twentieth century. Duke University Press.
[15]. Maliangkay, R., & Song, G. (2014). A sound wave of effeminacy: K-pop and the male beauty ideal in China. In K-pop–The international rise of the Korean music industry (pp. 164–177). Routledge.
[16]. Suning Finance. (2019). Research report on consumption trends of male groups [in Chinese].
[17]. China National Defense Newspaper. (2018). Chinese teenagers shouldn’t get rid of their masculinity [in Chinese].
[18]. Marshall, T. C. (2008). Cultural differences in intimacy: The influence of gender-role ideology and individualism—collectivism. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 25(1), 143–168.
[19]. Zhang, J., Mandl, H., & Wang, E. (2011). The effect of vertical–horizontal individualism–collectivism on acculturation and the moderating role of gender. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 35(1), 124–134.
[20]. Ng, W. C. (1999). The Chinese in Vancouver, 1945-80: The pursuit of identity and power. UBC Press.
[21]. Louie, K. (2012). Popular culture and masculinity ideals in East Asia, with special reference to China. The Journal of Asian Studies, 71(4), 929–943.
[22]. Zhu, G., Zhang, A., Cheng, L., Shi, K., & Wang, Y. (2022). “Saving Our Boys!”: Do Chinese Boys Have a Masculinity Crisis? ECNU Review of Education, 20965311221113590.
[23]. Lin, X., & Mac an Ghaill, M. (2019). Shifting discourses from boy preference to boy crisis: Educating boys and nation building in neoliberal China. Discourse: Studies in the Cultural Politics of Education, 40(3), 281–293.
[24]. Breitenberg, M. (1996). Anxious masculinity in early modern England (Vol. 10). Cambridge University Press.
[25]. Zhang, J., Mandl, H., & Wang, E. (2011). The effect of vertical–horizontal individualism–collectivism on acculturation and the moderating role of gender. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 35(1), 124–134.
[26]. Seidler, Z. E., Dawes, A. J., Rice, S. M., Oliffe, J. L., & Dhillon, H. M. (2016). The role of masculinity in men’s help-seeking for depression: A systematic review. Clinical Psychology Review, 49, 106–118.
[27]. Seidler, Z. E., Rice, S. M., Ogrodniczuk, J. S., Oliffe, J. L., Shaw, J. M., & Dhillon, H. M. (2019). Men, masculinities, depression: Implications for mental health services from a Delphi expert consensus study. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 50(1), 51.
[28]. Yan, L. and W. Han. 2008. “The Issue of Preventing Domestic Violence from the Perspective of the Social Work Profession: A Case of Domestic Violence against Women.” Legal System and Society 10(b): 220–221.
[29]. Campbell, C. (1992). Learning to kill? Masculinity, the family and violence in Natal. Journal of Southern African Studies, 18(3), 614–628.
[30]. Spaaij, R. (2008). Men like us, boys like them: Violence, masculinity, and collective identity in football hooliganism. Journal of Sport and Social Issues, 32(4), 369-392.
[31]. Kimmel, M. S. (2018). The contemporary “crisis” of masculinity in historical perspective. In The making of masculinities (pp. 121–153). Routledge.
[32]. O’neil, J. M. (2015). Men’s gender role conflict: Psychological costs, consequences, and an agenda for change. American Psychological Association.
[33]. Rubin, G. S. (2002). Thinking sex: Notes for a radical theory of the politics of sexuality. In Culture, Society and Sexuality A Reader (pp. 143–178). Routledge.
Cite this article
Zhu,Q. (2024). Cultivating "Masculinity": Where Does China's Anxiety about Masculinity Come From?. Communications in Humanities Research,28,8-12.
Data availability
The datasets used and/or analyzed during the current study will be available from the authors upon reasonable request.
Disclaimer/Publisher's Note
The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of EWA Publishing and/or the editor(s). EWA Publishing and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.
About volume
Volume title: Proceedings of the International Conference on Global Politics and Socio-Humanities
© 2024 by the author(s). Licensee EWA Publishing, Oxford, UK. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license. Authors who
publish this series agree to the following terms:
1. Authors retain copyright and grant the series right of first publication with the work simultaneously licensed under a Creative Commons
Attribution License that allows others to share the work with an acknowledgment of the work's authorship and initial publication in this
series.
2. Authors are able to enter into separate, additional contractual arrangements for the non-exclusive distribution of the series's published
version of the work (e.g., post it to an institutional repository or publish it in a book), with an acknowledgment of its initial
publication in this series.
3. Authors are permitted and encouraged to post their work online (e.g., in institutional repositories or on their website) prior to and
during the submission process, as it can lead to productive exchanges, as well as earlier and greater citation of published work (See
Open access policy for details).