1. Introduction

As quintessential manifestations of their respective cultural values, Eastern chivalry and Western heroism have left a lasting impact on literature and film. With the increasing frequency of global cultural exchanges, understanding the similarities and differences between these two value systems deepens cross-cultural comprehension. It provides rich intellectual resources for contemporary cultural creation. Current literature predominantly centers on analyses confined to singular cultural contexts, resulting in a notable deficiency of cross-cultural comparative research. This study addresses this gap by juxtaposing the behaviors and values of selected characters to elucidate the commonalities and divergences in the cultural foundations of Eastern and Western societies.

The study selects Yang Guo from The Return of the Condor Heroes and Batman from Batman Begins as research subjects for the following reasons: First, both figures represent archetypal heroes within their respective cultural contexts. Second, their developmental trajectories and value systems demonstrate notable parallels. Third, both works exert considerable influence within their specific cultural spheres. By comparing these two characters, this study aims to address the following questions: What are the similarities and differences in the cultural cores of Eastern chivalry and Western heroism? How do these differences reflect divergent cultural values? In the context of modern global cultural integration, is there potential for the convergence of these two value systems? This study addresses a critical void in current cross-cultural comparative research, provides novel insights into Eastern and Western cultural value systems, and investigates the potential integration of these paradigms within modern societal frameworks.

2. The embodiment of eastern chivalry: Yang Guo in The Return of the Condor Heroes

The Return of the Condor Heroes is the second instalment of Jin Yong's Condor Trilogy, narrating the story of Yang Guo, who, orphaned at a young age, overcomes numerous hardships to become a great hero. Yang Guo wanders the martial arts world in his youth, trains with the Quanzhen Sect and the Ancient Tomb Sect, and falls in love with his master, Xiao Longnü. However, they are separated due to their master-disciple relationship and various misunderstandings. Sixteen years later, they reunite, with Yang Guo becoming the "Condor Hero." He distinguishes himself in the Battle of Xiangyang before retiring with Xiao Longnü to a reclusive life.

The essence of Eastern chivalry lies in the cultural definition of X ia (chivalry), which combines Confucian "benevolence" and Daoist "reckoning grievances freely." Its core values are chivalric spirit and ethics [1]. The chivalric spirit originated during the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods with the Mohist school and, after integrating Confucian thought during the Han, Wei, Jin, and Tang dynasties, evolved into a philosophical concept [2]. In the context of the chaotic warfare and social disorder of the Spring and Autumn period, the figure of the Xia emerged. By the Han Dynasty, "righteousness" was established as the fundamental connotation of the chivalric spirit [3]. Confucianism established the ethical framework underpinning chivalric conduct, highlighting that "the greatest heroes serve their nation and populace," whereas Daoism endowed heroes with personal autonomy and spiritual liberty. In Eastern cultural paradigms, the Xia functions both as a custodian of social stability and as an advocate of individual emotional expression, thereby contributing to the distinctive allure of the chivalric ethos.

Yang Guo vividly embodies the complexities of Eastern chivalry. In Jin Yong's wuxia universe, Yang Guo exemplifies a complex character profile: emotionally detached yet fervently committed, intellectually astute yet ethically nuanced. Unlike Guo Jing, the archetypal Confucian hero who embodies "serving the country and people," Yang Guo's chivalry is more individualistic and even rebellious [4]. First, he transcends personal vendettas. Despite initially believing that Guo Jing and Huang Rong killed his father and despite Guo Fu severing his right arm, he forgives the Guo family after learning the truth and even saves Guo Fu's husband, Yelü Qi, during the Battle of Xiangyang. This act of forgiveness reflects the magnanimity inherent in the chivalric spirit.

Second, Yang Guo demonstrates a commitment to national righteousness. In the Battle of Xiangyang, he sets aside personal grievances to join other martial artists in defending the Song Dynasty against foreign invaders. This sense of obligation—"each individual bears a duty to their nation"—encapsulates the collectivist ethos inherent in Eastern notions of civic virtue.

Finally, Yang Guo balances emotion and morality. His enduring affection for Xiao Longnü persists through numerous adversities, yet he remains committed to his martial obligations. Only after fulfilling his duty of national defense does he opt for seclusion with Xiao Longnü, thereby reconciling personal allegiance with societal ethical standards. This balance reflects the "middle way" philosophy of Eastern culture.

3. The embodiment of Western heroism: Batman in Batman Begins

Batman Begins the first film in Christopher Nolan's Dark Knight trilogy, follows Bruce Wayne's transformation from a traumatized orphan to Gotham City's Dark Knight. In this cinematic portrayal, Bruce demonstrates the transcendence of trepidation, engages in a confrontation with syndicated malfeasance, and achieves personal atonement through the act of urban salvation.

Western heroic narratives typically coalesce around the convergence of individualism and a messianic drive. These narratives underscore the capacity of discrete actors to confront entrenched systemic malfeasance, imbuing these figures with a transformative societal mandate. In contradistinction to Eastern codes of chivalry, Western heroism foregrounds autonomy and self-reliance, with protagonists frequently functioning beyond established institutional parameters. Foundational Christian concepts of redemption subtly inform the Western heroic archetype, casting these figures as both redeemers of society and agents of self-redemption.

Batman epitomizes Western heroism. First, he pursues absolute justice, following a "no-kill rule." Even when facing heinous criminals, Batman refuses to act as judge and executioner, reflecting Western culture's legalistic constraints on heroism.

Secondly, Batman utilizes a bifurcated persona. During daylight hours, he embodies the affluent Bruce Wayne; conversely, under the cloak of night, he metamorphoses into Batman. This dichotomy transcends mere self-preservation, instead representing his parallel function as both an integrated component and a detached observer of the established order. This intricacy reflects the inherent strain between individual agents and institutional frameworks within Western societal structures.

Third, Batman crafts a symbolic meaning for Gotham. Choosing the bat as his emblem, he becomes the "Dark Knight," a beacon of hope for the city's citizens. Heroes influence others through various dimensions—strength, duration, and scope [5]. This semiotic representation mirrors the Western cultural mechanism of meaning construction, in which protagonists function not merely as agents but as generators of significance.

4. Commonalities between Eastern chivalry and Western heroism

4.1. Similarities in moral core

Despite differing cultural roots, Eastern chivalry and Western heroism share a fundamental pursuit of justice. Though distinct in form, Yang Guo's punishment of evil and Batman's crime-fighting uphold moral order and protect the vulnerable. This shared sense of justice reflects a universal human longing for fairness.

4.2. Self-sacrifice and responsibility

Heroes in both cultures are defined by self-sacrifice and duty. Yang Guo and Bruce Wayne forsake personal gain for higher callings, embodying moral elevation.

Yang Guo's path involves trauma—arm loss, condemned love, childhood maltreatment—yet he rises above revenge, such as sparing Guo Fu and defending Xiangyang. Jin Yong uses Yang Guo to exemplify the Confucian principle of serving country and people [4].

Bruce Wayne forgoes his affluent status to embody Batman, a non-lethal vigilante. In "Batman Begins," he simulates villainy, enduring public condemnation. These voluntary, heroic actions are ethically "supererogatory," exceeding moral duties [6]. Batman' s sacrifices are physical (eschewing weapons) and psychological (loneliness from dual identities).

Both heroes exemplify self-sacrifice: Yang Guo's physical loss (his arm) and Batman's emotional isolation. Their willingness to suffer for higher ideals transcends cultural divides.

4.3. Dialectical understanding of "power": Eastern "emotion" vs. Western "reason"

Heroic strength lies not just in might but in its application. Yang Guo and Batman reflect cultural divergences in defining power, yet both stress moral restraint.

Yang Guo's martial arts, such as the Heavy Sword technique and Melancholic Palms, reflect his psychological state. The Heavy Sword's "unadorned mastery" represents his resilience, while the Melancholic Palms derive power from his longing for Xiao Longnü. Jin Yong implies that true strength originates from inner cultivation rather than external skill. Despite his martial prowess, Yang Guo avoids excessive force, embodying the Eastern principle of using martial arts for justice and virtue for persuasion.

Batman's capabilities stem from technology (e.g., Batsuit, Batmobile) and psychological tactics (fear-based). His strength relies on tools and strategy, contrasting with Yang Guo's physical prowess. Traditional heroes excel in combat, while non-traditional ones (e.g., Sherlock Holmes) leverage intellect [7]. Yet Batman imposes strict limits: no killing, no guns, minimal violence. In Batman Begins, he rejects the League of Shadows ' lethal justice, insisting on due process. This restraint reflects Western heroism's wariness of absolute power.

Though Eastern and Western heroes source power differently (inner cultivation vs. tools), both adhere to one principle: power must serve justice, not desire.

5. Differences between Eastern chivalry and Western heroism

5.1. Divergent value foundations

The fundamental divergence stems from their axiological foundations.

Eastern chivalry embodies collectivism, emphasizing "nation, family, and the world" alongside "martial ethics." During the Ming-Qing era, a "concern for the nation and its populace" emerged as a pivotal tenet of Chinese martial chivalry [2]. Yang Guo's actions are enmeshed in social networks, affecting the martial world and national fate. This collectivism emphasizes harmony and relational balance.

Western heroism, characterized by its individualistic nature, often highlights the protagonist's resistance against flawed or oppressive structures. A prime example is the "Dark Knight," Batman, who functions autonomously, unbound by institutional constraints, driven by the conviction that individual agency can catalyze societal transformation. This emphasis on individualism is a cornerstone of Western culture, where the dynamic interplay between the individual and systemic forces shapes the trajectory of heroic narratives.

5.2. Contrasting behavioral logic

Eastern chivalry blends emotion and morality. Chen notes that Yang Guo's self-reliance and resistance to authority [8]. For example, he defies the Quanzhen Sect to protect Xiao Longnü, prioritizing personal bonds over rules—a reflection of Eastern relational ethics.

Batman's actions are rule-bound and rational. His "no-kill rule" remains unshaken even against his parents' murderer, embodying Enlightenment ideals of universal principles over personal feelings.

5.3. Social relationships

In Eastern narratives, the protagonists' identities are intricately linked to kinship bonds and mentor-apprentice lineages. For instance, Yang Guo's persona is molded through his affiliations with Guo Jing, the Quanzhen Sect, and the Ancient Tomb Sect. Within Eastern cultural frameworks, individuals glean significance and definition from their interpersonal connections [8].

In Western narratives, the archetype of the hero frequently embodies a sense of detachment. Figures such as Batman, the quintessential "lone vigilante," predominantly operate autonomously, even within a network of allied characters. This self-imposed exile mirrors the cultural emphasis on individualism prevalent in Western societies, as well as the pervasive sense of alienation characteristic of the modern human condition [9].

5.4. Cultural metaphors in endings

Yang Guo's retirement with Xiao Longnü aligns with Daoist "withdrawal after success." Eastern culture values balancing societal engagement and reclusion.

Batman's endless crusade mirrors Christian "eternal redemption." Western heroism prizes perpetual struggle without conclusion.

6. Conclusion

Through the comparative analysis of Yang and Batman, this paper finds that there are both commonalities and differences between Eastern and Western cultures in the shaping of heroes. In terms of moral kernel and growth narratives, the two show cross-cultural similarities; while in terms of value roots, behavioural logic, social relationships and ending metaphors, they reflect profound cultural differences. These differences and similarities reflect the different cultural traditions and values between the East and the West, and provide an important perspective for us to understand the two cultures. With the increasing frequency of global cultural exchanges, the fusion of Eastern chivalry and Western heroism has become possible. The success of works such as Kung Fu Panda proves that cultural values of the East and the West can be organically fused in creative works. This fusion is not a simple superposition, but a deep, creative transformation that can produce new forms of cultural expression and spiritual connotations.