Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity Disorder: A Review of Etiology, Pathology, Consequences and Treatment

Research Article
Open access

Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity Disorder: A Review of Etiology, Pathology, Consequences and Treatment

Dong Zhao 1*
  • 1 University of Edinburgh    
  • *corresponding author zhaodong202009@163.com
Published on 14 September 2023 | https://doi.org/10.54254/2753-7048/8/20230121
LNEP Vol.8
ISSN (Print): 2753-7056
ISSN (Online): 2753-7048
ISBN (Print): 978-1-915371-97-3
ISBN (Online): 978-1-915371-98-0

Abstract

Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) causes attention problems and hyperactive or impulsive behaviours that seriously affect the daily life of the person. As a common mental developmental disorder, the number of published studies on the subject is large and the relationship is complex. This article attempts to categorise the relevant studies by reviewing those related to ADHD. Forty-six studies are included in this paper, which are broadly categorised into three areas: etiology, pathology and consequences and treatment. These categories do not exist in isolation, but are interrelated and interact with each other. It concludes with an outlook on future research in relation to the limitations of the current studies.

Keywords:

ADHD, etiology, pathology, treatment

Zhao,D. (2023). Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity Disorder: A Review of Etiology, Pathology, Consequences and Treatment. Lecture Notes in Education Psychology and Public Media,8,229-237.
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References

[1]. American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.

[2]. Taylor, E. (2011). Antecedents of ADHD: a historical account of diagnostic concepts. ADHD Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity Disorders, 3(2), 69-75.

[3]. Still, G. F. (1902). The Goulstonian Lectures. Some abnormal psychical conditions in children, 1008-1012.

[4]. Sayal, K., Prasad, V., Daley, D., Ford, T., & Coghill, D. (2018). ADHD in children and young people: prevalence, care pathways, and service provision. The Lancet Psychiatry, 5(2), 175-186.

[5]. Chang, Z., Lichtenstein, P., Asherson, P. J., & Larsson, H. (2013). Developmental twin study of attention problems: high heritabilities throughout development. JAMA psychiatry, 70(3), 311-318.

[6]. Chen, W., Zhou, K., Sham, P., Franke, B., Kuntsi, J., Campbell, D., ... & Asherson, P. (2008). DSM‐IV combined type ADHD shows familial association with sibling trait scores: A sampling strategy for QTL linkage. American journal of medical Genetics part B: Neuropsychiatric Genetics, 147(8), 1450-1460.

[7]. Sprich, S., Biederman, J., Crawford, M. H., Mundy, E., & Faraone, S. V. (2000). Adoptive and biological families of children and adolescents with ADHD. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 39(11), 1432-1437.

[8]. Takeda, T., Stotesbery, K., Power, T., Ambrosini, P. J., Berrettini, W., Hakonarson, H., & Elia, J. (2010). Parental ADHD status and its association with proband ADHD subtype and severity. The Journal of pediatrics, 157(6), 995-1000.

[9]. Zhou, K., Dempfle, A., Arcos‐Burgos, M., Bakker, S. C., Banaschewski, T., Biederman, J., ... & Asherson, P. (2008). Meta‐analysis of genome‐wide linkage scans of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. American Journal of Medical Genetics Part B: Neuropsychiatric Genetics, 147(8), 1392-1398.

[10]. Demontis, D., Walters, R. K., Martin, J., Mattheisen, M., Als, T. D., Agerbo, E., ... & Neale, B. M. (2019). Discovery of the first genome-wide significant risk loci for attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Nature genetics, 51(1), 63-75.

[11]. Faraone, S. V., & Larsson, H. (2019). Genetics of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Molecular psychiatry, 24(4), 562-575.

[12]. Albajara Sáenz, A., Villemonteix, T., & Massat, I. (2019). Structural and functional neuroimaging in attention‐deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology, 61(4), 399-405.

[13]. Volkow, N. D., Wang, G. J., Kollins, S. H., Wigal, T. L., Newcorn, J. H., Telang, F., ... & Swanson, J. M. (2009). Evaluating dopamine reward pathway in ADHD: clinical implications. Jama, 302(10), 1084-1091.

[14]. Fusar-Poli, P., Rubia, K., Rossi, G., Sartori, G., & Balottin, U. (2012). Striatal dopamine transporter alterations in ADHD: pathophysiology or adaptation to psychostimulants? A meta-analysis. American Journal of Psychiatry, 169(3), 264-272.

[15]. Norman, L. J., Carlisi, C., Lukito, S., Hart, H., Mataix-Cols, D., Radua, J., & Rubia, K. (2016). Structural and functional brain abnormalities in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and obsessive-compulsive disorder: a comparative meta-analysis. JAMA psychiatry, 73(8), 815-825.

[16]. Manzari, N., Matvienko-Sikar, K., Baldoni, F., O’Keeffe, G. W., & Khashan, A. S. (2019). Prenatal maternal stress and risk of neurodevelopmental disorders in the offspring: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Social psychiatry and psychiatric epidemiology, 54(11), 1299-1309.

[17]. Goodlad, J. K., Marcus, D. K., & Fulton, J. J. (2013). Lead and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) symptoms: a meta-analysis. Clinical psychology review, 33(3), 417-425.

[18]. Myhre, O., Låg, M., Villanger, G. D., Oftedal, B., Øvrevik, J., Holme, J. A., ... & Dirven, H. (2018). Early life exposure to air pollution particulate matter (PM) as risk factor for attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): Need for novel strategies for mechanisms and causalities. Toxicology and applied pharmacology, 354, 196-214.

[19]. Zhu, J. L., Olsen, J., Liew, Z., Li, J., Niclasen, J., & Obel, C. (2014). Parental smoking during pregnancy and ADHD in children: the Danish national birth cohort. Pediatrics, 134(2), e382-e388.

[20]. Ullsperger, J. M., Nigg, J. T., & Nikolas, M. A. (2016). Does child temperament play a role in the association between parenting practices and child attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder?. Journal of abnormal child psychology, 44(1), 167-178.

[21]. Gau, S. S. F., & Chang, J. P. C. (2013). Maternal parenting styles and mother–child relationship among adolescents with and without persistent attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Research in developmental disabilities, 34(5), 1581-1594.

[22]. Brown, N. M., Brown, S. N., Briggs, R. D., Germán, M., Belamarich, P. F., & Oyeku, S. O. (2017). Associations between adverse childhood experiences and ADHD diagnosis and severity. Academic pediatrics, 17(4), 349-355.

[23]. Björkenstam, E., Björkenstam, C., Jablonska, B., & Kosidou, K. (2018). Cumulative exposure to childhood adversity, and treated attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a cohort study of 543 650 adolescents and young adults in Sweden. Psychological medicine, 48(3), 498-507.

[24]. Russell, A. E., Ford, T., Williams, R., & Russell, G. (2016). The association between socioeconomic disadvantage and attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): a systematic review. Child Psychiatry & Human Development, 47(3), 440-458.

[25]. First, M. B., Gaebel, W., Maj, M., Stein, D. J., Kogan, C. S., Saunders, J. B., ... & Reed, G. M. (2021). An organization‐and category‐level comparison of diagnostic requirements for mental disorders in ICD‐11 and DSM‐5. World Psychiatry, 20(1), 34-51.

[26]. Doernberg, E., & Hollander, E. (2016). Neurodevelopmental disorders (asd and adhd): dsm-5, icd-10, and icd-11. CNS spectrums, 21(4), 295-299.

[27]. Polanczyk, G. V., Willcutt, E. G., Salum, G. A., Kieling, C., & Rohde, L. A. (2014). ADHD prevalence estimates across three decades: an updated systematic review and meta-regression analysis. International journal of epidemiology, 43(2), 434-442.

[28]. Polanczyk, G. V, De Lima, M. S., Horta, B. L., Biederman, J., & Rohde, L. A. (2007). The worldwide prevalence of ADHD: a systematic review and metaregression analysis. American journal of psychiatry, 164(6), 942-948.

[29]. Erskine, H. E., Ferrari, A. J., Nelson, P., Polanczyk, G. V., Flaxman, A. D., Vos, T., ... & Scott, J. G. (2013). Research Review: Epidemiological modelling of attention‐deficit/hyperactivity disorder and conduct disorder for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 54(12), 1263-1274.

[30]. Song, P., Zha, M., Yang, Q., Zhang, Y., Li, X., & Rudan, I. (2021). The prevalence of adult attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: A global systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of global health, 11.

[31]. Willcutt, E. G. (2012). The prevalence of DSM-IV attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a meta-analytic review. Neurotherapeutics, 9(3), 490-499.

[32]. Williamson, D., & Johnston, C. (2015). Gender differences in adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: A narrative review. Clinical psychology review, 40, 15-27.

[33]. Cénat, J. M., Blais-Rochette, C., Morse, C., Vandette, M. P., Noorishad, P. G., Kogan, C., ... & Labelle, P. R. (2021). Prevalence and risk factors associated with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder among US black individuals: A systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA psychiatry, 78(1), 21-28.

[34]. Chen, Q., Hartman, C. A., Haavik, J., Harro, J., Klungsøyr, K., Hegvik, T. A., ... & Larsson, H. (2018). Common psychiatric and metabolic comorbidity of adult attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: A population-based cross-sectional study. PloS one, 13(9), e0204516.

[35]. Scholtens, S., Rydell, A. M., & Yang‐Wallentin, F. (2013). ADHD symptoms, academic achievement, self‐perception of academic competence and future orientation: A longitudinal study. Scandinavian journal of psychology, 54(3), 205-212.

[36]. Weyandt, L., DuPaul, G. J., Verdi, G., Rossi, J. S., Swentosky, A. J., Vilardo, B. S., ... & Carson, K. S. (2013). The performance of college students with and without ADHD: Neuropsychological, academic, and psychosocial functioning. Journal of psychopathology and behavioral assessment, 35(4), 421-435.

[37]. Forte, A., Orri, M., Galera, C., Pompili, M., Turecki, G., Boivin, M., ... & Côté, S. M. (2020). Developmental trajectories of childhood symptoms of hyperactivity/inattention and suicidal behavior during adolescence. European child & adolescent psychiatry, 29(2), 145-151.

[38]. Zhao, X., Page, T. F., Altszuler, A. R., Pelham, W. E., Kipp, H., Gnagy, E. M., ... & Macphee, F. L. (2019). Family burden of raising a child with ADHD. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 47(8), 1327-1338.

[39]. Mofokeng, M., & van der Wath, A. E. (2017). Challenges experienced by parents living with a child with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Child & Adolescent Mental Health, 29(2), 137-145.

[40]. Piscitello, J., Altszuler, A. R., Mazzant, J. R., Babinski, D. E., Gnagy, E. M., Page, T. F., ... & Pelham, W. E. (2022). The Impact of ADHD on Maternal Quality of Life. Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology, 1-14.

[41]. Fletcher, J., & Wolfe, B. (2009). Long-term consequences of childhood ADHD on criminal activities. The journal of mental health policy and economics, 12(3), 119.

[42]. Mohr-Jensen, C., & Steinhausen, H. C. (2016). A meta-analysis and systematic review of the risks associated with childhood attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder on long-term outcome of arrests, convictions, and incarcerations. Clinical psychology review, 48, 32-42.

[43]. Storebø, O. J., Simonsen, E., & Gluud, C. (2016). Methylphenidate for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in children and adolescents. Jama, 315(18), 2009-2010.

[44]. Childress, A. C. (2016). A critical appraisal of atomoxetine in the management of ADHD. Therapeutics and clinical risk management, 12, 27.

[45]. Cairncross, M., & Miller, C. J. (2020). The effectiveness of mindfulness-based therapies for ADHD: A meta-analytic review. Journal of attention disorders, 24(5), 627-643.

[46]. Nimmo-Smith, V., Merwood, A., Hank, D., Brandling, J., Greenwood, R., Skinner, L., ... & Rai, D. (2020). Non-pharmacological interventions for adult ADHD: a systematic review. Psychological medicine, 50(4), 529-541.

[47]. Mongia, M., & Hechtman, L. (2016). Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder across the lifespan: Review of literature on cognitive behavior therapy. Current Developmental Disorders Reports, 3(1), 7-14.

[48]. Heilskov Rytter, M. J., Andersen, L. B. B., Houmann, T., Bilenberg, N., Hvolby, A., Mølgaard, C., ... & Lauritzen, L. (2015). Diet in the treatment of ADHD in children—A systematic review of the literature. Nordic journal of psychiatry, 69(1), 1-18.

[49]. Vysniauske, R., Verburgh, L., Oosterlaan, J., & Molendijk, M. L. (2020). The effects of physical exercise on functional outcomes in the treatment of ADHD: a meta-analysis. Journal of attention disorders, 24(5), 644-654.

[50]. Barba, M. C., Covino, A., De Luca, V., De Paolis, L. T., D’Errico, G., Di Bitonto, P., ... & Schena, A. (2019, June). BRAVO: a gaming environment for the treatment of ADHD. In International conference on augmented reality, virtual reality and computer graphics (pp. 394-407). Springer, Cham.

[51]. Gould, K. L., Coventry, W. L., Olson, R. K., & Byrne, B. (2018). Gene-environment interactions in ADHD: the roles of SES and chaos. Journal of abnormal child psychology, 46(2), 251-263.

[52]. Nigg, J. T., Sibley, M. H., Thapar, A., & Karalunas, S. L. (2020). Development of ADHD: Etiology, heterogeneity, and early life course. Annual review of developmental psychology, 2(1), 559.

[53]. Coker, T. R., Elliott, M. N., Toomey, S. L., Schwebel, D. C., Cuccaro, P., Tortolero Emery, S., ... & Schuster, M. A. (2016). Racial and ethnic disparities in ADHD diagnosis and treatment. Pediatrics, 138(3).

[54]. Faraone, S. V., Banaschewski, T., Coghill, D., Zheng, Y., Biederman, J., Bellgrove, M. A., ... & Wang, Y. (2021). The world federation of ADHD international consensus statement: 208 evidence-based conclusions about the disorder. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 128, 789-818.

Cite this article

Zhao,D. (2023). Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity Disorder: A Review of Etiology, Pathology, Consequences and Treatment. Lecture Notes in Education Psychology and Public Media,8,229-237.

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The datasets used and/or analyzed during the current study will be available from the authors upon reasonable request.

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Volume title: Proceedings of the International Conference on Social Psychology and Humanity Studies

ISBN：978-1-915371-97-3(Print) / 978-1-915371-98-0(Online)
Editor：Muhammad Idrees, Faisalabad Matilde Lafuente-Lechuga
Conference website: https://www.icsphs.org/
Conference date: 24 April 2023
Series: Lecture Notes in Education Psychology and Public Media
Volume number: Vol.8
ISSN：2753-7048(Print) / 2753-7056(Online)

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References

[1]. American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.

[2]. Taylor, E. (2011). Antecedents of ADHD: a historical account of diagnostic concepts. ADHD Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity Disorders, 3(2), 69-75.

[3]. Still, G. F. (1902). The Goulstonian Lectures. Some abnormal psychical conditions in children, 1008-1012.

[4]. Sayal, K., Prasad, V., Daley, D., Ford, T., & Coghill, D. (2018). ADHD in children and young people: prevalence, care pathways, and service provision. The Lancet Psychiatry, 5(2), 175-186.

[5]. Chang, Z., Lichtenstein, P., Asherson, P. J., & Larsson, H. (2013). Developmental twin study of attention problems: high heritabilities throughout development. JAMA psychiatry, 70(3), 311-318.

[6]. Chen, W., Zhou, K., Sham, P., Franke, B., Kuntsi, J., Campbell, D., ... & Asherson, P. (2008). DSM‐IV combined type ADHD shows familial association with sibling trait scores: A sampling strategy for QTL linkage. American journal of medical Genetics part B: Neuropsychiatric Genetics, 147(8), 1450-1460.

[7]. Sprich, S., Biederman, J., Crawford, M. H., Mundy, E., & Faraone, S. V. (2000). Adoptive and biological families of children and adolescents with ADHD. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 39(11), 1432-1437.

[8]. Takeda, T., Stotesbery, K., Power, T., Ambrosini, P. J., Berrettini, W., Hakonarson, H., & Elia, J. (2010). Parental ADHD status and its association with proband ADHD subtype and severity. The Journal of pediatrics, 157(6), 995-1000.

[9]. Zhou, K., Dempfle, A., Arcos‐Burgos, M., Bakker, S. C., Banaschewski, T., Biederman, J., ... & Asherson, P. (2008). Meta‐analysis of genome‐wide linkage scans of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. American Journal of Medical Genetics Part B: Neuropsychiatric Genetics, 147(8), 1392-1398.

[10]. Demontis, D., Walters, R. K., Martin, J., Mattheisen, M., Als, T. D., Agerbo, E., ... & Neale, B. M. (2019). Discovery of the first genome-wide significant risk loci for attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Nature genetics, 51(1), 63-75.

[11]. Faraone, S. V., & Larsson, H. (2019). Genetics of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Molecular psychiatry, 24(4), 562-575.

[12]. Albajara Sáenz, A., Villemonteix, T., & Massat, I. (2019). Structural and functional neuroimaging in attention‐deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology, 61(4), 399-405.

[13]. Volkow, N. D., Wang, G. J., Kollins, S. H., Wigal, T. L., Newcorn, J. H., Telang, F., ... & Swanson, J. M. (2009). Evaluating dopamine reward pathway in ADHD: clinical implications. Jama, 302(10), 1084-1091.

[14]. Fusar-Poli, P., Rubia, K., Rossi, G., Sartori, G., & Balottin, U. (2012). Striatal dopamine transporter alterations in ADHD: pathophysiology or adaptation to psychostimulants? A meta-analysis. American Journal of Psychiatry, 169(3), 264-272.

[15]. Norman, L. J., Carlisi, C., Lukito, S., Hart, H., Mataix-Cols, D., Radua, J., & Rubia, K. (2016). Structural and functional brain abnormalities in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and obsessive-compulsive disorder: a comparative meta-analysis. JAMA psychiatry, 73(8), 815-825.

[16]. Manzari, N., Matvienko-Sikar, K., Baldoni, F., O’Keeffe, G. W., & Khashan, A. S. (2019). Prenatal maternal stress and risk of neurodevelopmental disorders in the offspring: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Social psychiatry and psychiatric epidemiology, 54(11), 1299-1309.

[17]. Goodlad, J. K., Marcus, D. K., & Fulton, J. J. (2013). Lead and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) symptoms: a meta-analysis. Clinical psychology review, 33(3), 417-425.

[18]. Myhre, O., Låg, M., Villanger, G. D., Oftedal, B., Øvrevik, J., Holme, J. A., ... & Dirven, H. (2018). Early life exposure to air pollution particulate matter (PM) as risk factor for attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): Need for novel strategies for mechanisms and causalities. Toxicology and applied pharmacology, 354, 196-214.

[19]. Zhu, J. L., Olsen, J., Liew, Z., Li, J., Niclasen, J., & Obel, C. (2014). Parental smoking during pregnancy and ADHD in children: the Danish national birth cohort. Pediatrics, 134(2), e382-e388.

[20]. Ullsperger, J. M., Nigg, J. T., & Nikolas, M. A. (2016). Does child temperament play a role in the association between parenting practices and child attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder?. Journal of abnormal child psychology, 44(1), 167-178.

[21]. Gau, S. S. F., & Chang, J. P. C. (2013). Maternal parenting styles and mother–child relationship among adolescents with and without persistent attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Research in developmental disabilities, 34(5), 1581-1594.

[22]. Brown, N. M., Brown, S. N., Briggs, R. D., Germán, M., Belamarich, P. F., & Oyeku, S. O. (2017). Associations between adverse childhood experiences and ADHD diagnosis and severity. Academic pediatrics, 17(4), 349-355.

[23]. Björkenstam, E., Björkenstam, C., Jablonska, B., & Kosidou, K. (2018). Cumulative exposure to childhood adversity, and treated attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a cohort study of 543 650 adolescents and young adults in Sweden. Psychological medicine, 48(3), 498-507.

[24]. Russell, A. E., Ford, T., Williams, R., & Russell, G. (2016). The association between socioeconomic disadvantage and attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): a systematic review. Child Psychiatry & Human Development, 47(3), 440-458.

[25]. First, M. B., Gaebel, W., Maj, M., Stein, D. J., Kogan, C. S., Saunders, J. B., ... & Reed, G. M. (2021). An organization‐and category‐level comparison of diagnostic requirements for mental disorders in ICD‐11 and DSM‐5. World Psychiatry, 20(1), 34-51.

[26]. Doernberg, E., & Hollander, E. (2016). Neurodevelopmental disorders (asd and adhd): dsm-5, icd-10, and icd-11. CNS spectrums, 21(4), 295-299.

[27]. Polanczyk, G. V., Willcutt, E. G., Salum, G. A., Kieling, C., & Rohde, L. A. (2014). ADHD prevalence estimates across three decades: an updated systematic review and meta-regression analysis. International journal of epidemiology, 43(2), 434-442.

[28]. Polanczyk, G. V, De Lima, M. S., Horta, B. L., Biederman, J., & Rohde, L. A. (2007). The worldwide prevalence of ADHD: a systematic review and metaregression analysis. American journal of psychiatry, 164(6), 942-948.

[29]. Erskine, H. E., Ferrari, A. J., Nelson, P., Polanczyk, G. V., Flaxman, A. D., Vos, T., ... & Scott, J. G. (2013). Research Review: Epidemiological modelling of attention‐deficit/hyperactivity disorder and conduct disorder for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 54(12), 1263-1274.

[30]. Song, P., Zha, M., Yang, Q., Zhang, Y., Li, X., & Rudan, I. (2021). The prevalence of adult attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: A global systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of global health, 11.

[31]. Willcutt, E. G. (2012). The prevalence of DSM-IV attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a meta-analytic review. Neurotherapeutics, 9(3), 490-499.

[32]. Williamson, D., & Johnston, C. (2015). Gender differences in adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: A narrative review. Clinical psychology review, 40, 15-27.

[33]. Cénat, J. M., Blais-Rochette, C., Morse, C., Vandette, M. P., Noorishad, P. G., Kogan, C., ... & Labelle, P. R. (2021). Prevalence and risk factors associated with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder among US black individuals: A systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA psychiatry, 78(1), 21-28.

[34]. Chen, Q., Hartman, C. A., Haavik, J., Harro, J., Klungsøyr, K., Hegvik, T. A., ... & Larsson, H. (2018). Common psychiatric and metabolic comorbidity of adult attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: A population-based cross-sectional study. PloS one, 13(9), e0204516.

[35]. Scholtens, S., Rydell, A. M., & Yang‐Wallentin, F. (2013). ADHD symptoms, academic achievement, self‐perception of academic competence and future orientation: A longitudinal study. Scandinavian journal of psychology, 54(3), 205-212.

[36]. Weyandt, L., DuPaul, G. J., Verdi, G., Rossi, J. S., Swentosky, A. J., Vilardo, B. S., ... & Carson, K. S. (2013). The performance of college students with and without ADHD: Neuropsychological, academic, and psychosocial functioning. Journal of psychopathology and behavioral assessment, 35(4), 421-435.

[37]. Forte, A., Orri, M., Galera, C., Pompili, M., Turecki, G., Boivin, M., ... & Côté, S. M. (2020). Developmental trajectories of childhood symptoms of hyperactivity/inattention and suicidal behavior during adolescence. European child & adolescent psychiatry, 29(2), 145-151.

[38]. Zhao, X., Page, T. F., Altszuler, A. R., Pelham, W. E., Kipp, H., Gnagy, E. M., ... & Macphee, F. L. (2019). Family burden of raising a child with ADHD. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 47(8), 1327-1338.

[39]. Mofokeng, M., & van der Wath, A. E. (2017). Challenges experienced by parents living with a child with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Child & Adolescent Mental Health, 29(2), 137-145.

[40]. Piscitello, J., Altszuler, A. R., Mazzant, J. R., Babinski, D. E., Gnagy, E. M., Page, T. F., ... & Pelham, W. E. (2022). The Impact of ADHD on Maternal Quality of Life. Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology, 1-14.

[41]. Fletcher, J., & Wolfe, B. (2009). Long-term consequences of childhood ADHD on criminal activities. The journal of mental health policy and economics, 12(3), 119.

[42]. Mohr-Jensen, C., & Steinhausen, H. C. (2016). A meta-analysis and systematic review of the risks associated with childhood attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder on long-term outcome of arrests, convictions, and incarcerations. Clinical psychology review, 48, 32-42.

[43]. Storebø, O. J., Simonsen, E., & Gluud, C. (2016). Methylphenidate for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in children and adolescents. Jama, 315(18), 2009-2010.

[44]. Childress, A. C. (2016). A critical appraisal of atomoxetine in the management of ADHD. Therapeutics and clinical risk management, 12, 27.

[45]. Cairncross, M., & Miller, C. J. (2020). The effectiveness of mindfulness-based therapies for ADHD: A meta-analytic review. Journal of attention disorders, 24(5), 627-643.

[46]. Nimmo-Smith, V., Merwood, A., Hank, D., Brandling, J., Greenwood, R., Skinner, L., ... & Rai, D. (2020). Non-pharmacological interventions for adult ADHD: a systematic review. Psychological medicine, 50(4), 529-541.

[47]. Mongia, M., & Hechtman, L. (2016). Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder across the lifespan: Review of literature on cognitive behavior therapy. Current Developmental Disorders Reports, 3(1), 7-14.

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