Center of darkness: Attacks and defensive strategies on blockchain consensus algorithm

Research Article
Open access

Center of darkness: Attacks and defensive strategies on blockchain consensus algorithm

Liuyi Fang 1*
  • 1 Hunan Applied Technology University, CN    
  • *corresponding author 1474378088@qq.com
Published on 22 March 2023 | https://doi.org/10.54254/2755-2721/2/20220591
ACE Vol.2
ISSN (Print): 2755-273X
ISSN (Online): 2755-2721
ISBN (Print): 978-1-915371-19-5
ISBN (Online): 978-1-915371-20-1

Abstract

ith the rapid development of blockchain technology, more and more attention has been paid to the core consensus algorithm, and the related security problems have followed. For example, due to the loopholes in the consensus algorithm, the Bitcoin Gold platform lost about 18 million USD. Therefore, how to avoid such attacks against the consensus algorithm is an unavoidable topic for everyone involved in the blockchain platform. Starting from the mainstream consensus algorithm, this paper introduces their evolution process and their respective principles. In addition, we also introduce the possible attack principles and harms from two perspectives. One is general, that is, attacks under this category are not limited to specific consensus algorithm and platforms. The other type is specific, that is, the vulnerability locates in specific consensus algorithm. At the end of this paper, we divide all the personnel involved in the blockchain into three categories, and put forward specific suggestions for each category of personnel to help them better avoid and respond to possible attacks on the consensus algorithm.

Keywords:

consensus algorithm, attacks, defensive strategies, blockchain.

Fang,L. (2023). Center of darkness: Attacks and defensive strategies on blockchain consensus algorithm. Applied and Computational Engineering,2,176-186.
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References

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[2]. Consensus (computer_science). https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consensus_(computer_science). (2022).

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[8]. Ethereum's proof of stake. https://ethereum.org/en/developers/docs/consensus-mechanisms/pos/?msclkid=a9fb4e6ccebb11ec874ac87e4da2202f (2022).

[9]. Larimer, D. Delegated proof-of-stake (dpos). *Bitshare whitepaper*, *81*, 85 (2014).

[10]. Dziembowski, S., Faust, S., Kolmogorov, V., & Pietrzak, K. Proofs of Space. Cryptology ePrint Archive (2013).

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[12]. Schwartz, D., Youngs, N., & Britto, A. The ripple protocol consensus algorithm. Ripple Labs Inc White Paper, 5(8), 151 (2014).

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[15]. The P + epsilon Attack. https://blog.ethereum.org/2015/01/28/p-epsilon-attack/ (2015).

[16]. Heilman, E., Kendler, A., Zohar, A., & Goldberg, S. Eclipse Attacks on {Bitcoin’s}{Peer-to-Peer} Network. In 24th USENIX Security Symposium (USENIX Security 15) (pp. 129-144) (2015).

[17]. Niu, J., & Feng, C. Selfish mining in ethereum. arXiv preprint arXiv:1901.04620 (2019).

[18]. Schwarz-Schilling, C., Neu, J., Monnot, B., Asgaonkar, A., Tas, E. N., & Tse, D. Three Attacks on Proof-of-Stake Ethereum. arXiv preprint arXiv:2110.10086 (2021).

[19]. Gaži, P., Kiayias, A., & Russell, A. Stake-bleeding attacks on proof-of-stake blockchains. In 2018 Crypto Valley conference on Blockchain technology (CVCBT) (pp. 85-92). IEEE (2018).

[20]. The Environmental Impact of Bitcoin Mining. https://coincentral.com/what-is-the-environmental-impact-of-bitcoin-mining/ (2018).

[21]. Castro, M., & Liskov, B. Practical Byzantine fault tolerance and proactive recovery. ACM Transactions on Computer Systems (TOCS), 20(4), 398-461 (2002).

[22]. Proof of stake instead of proof of work. https://bitcointalk.org/index.php?topic=27787 (2011)..

[23]. Peercoin & Proof of Stake Consensus. https://github.com/peercoin/PeercoinUniversity/blob/master/app/assets/docs/09-peercoin-and-proof-of-stake-consensus.md (2019).

[24]. Chia Consensus. https://docs.chia.net/docs/03consensus/consensus_intro (2022).

[25]. ppcoin - stake burn-through vulnerability. https://bitcointalk.org/index.php?topic=131901.0 (2012).

[26]. NXT POS Block Skipping Attack Myth. https://hackernoon.com/nxt-pos-block-skipping-attack-myth-de88cf4b3363 (2018).

[27]. NXT blockchain platform. https://www.jelurida.com/nxt (2022).

[28]. Ethereum Wiki. https://eth.wiki/concepts/proof-of-stake-faqs (2022).

Cite this article

Fang,L. (2023). Center of darkness: Attacks and defensive strategies on blockchain consensus algorithm. Applied and Computational Engineering,2,176-186.

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The datasets used and/or analyzed during the current study will be available from the authors upon reasonable request.

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About volume

Volume title: Proceedings of the 4th International Conference on Computing and Data Science (CONF-CDS 2022)

ISBN：978-1-915371-19-5(Print) / 978-1-915371-20-1(Online)
Editor：Alan Wang
Conference website: https://www.confcds.org/
Conference date: 16 July 2022
Series: Applied and Computational Engineering
Volume number: Vol.2
ISSN：2755-2721(Print) / 2755-273X(Online)

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References

[1]. Total Cryptocurrency Market Cap. https://coinmarketcap.com/charts/ (2020).

[2]. Consensus (computer_science). https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consensus_(computer_science). (2022).

[3]. Bitcoin Gold suffers 51% attack. https://bitcoingold.org/responding-to-attacks/ (2018).

[4]. BSV suffers 51% attack. https://twitter.com/LucasNuzzi/status/1422637361138130944 (2021).

[5]. Nakamoto, S. (2008). Bitcoin: A peer-to-peer electronic cash system. *Decentralized Business Review*, 21260.

[6]. Sompolinsky, Y., & Zohar, A. Secure high-rate transaction processing in bitcoin. In International Conference on Financial Cryptography and Data Security (pp. 507-527). Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg (2015).

[7]. King, S., & Nadal, S. Ppcoin: Peer-to-peer crypto-currency with proof-of-stake. self-published paper, August, 19(1) (2012).

[8]. Ethereum's proof of stake. https://ethereum.org/en/developers/docs/consensus-mechanisms/pos/?msclkid=a9fb4e6ccebb11ec874ac87e4da2202f (2022).

[9]. Larimer, D. Delegated proof-of-stake (dpos). *Bitshare whitepaper*, *81*, 85 (2014).

[10]. Dziembowski, S., Faust, S., Kolmogorov, V., & Pietrzak, K. Proofs of Space. Cryptology ePrint Archive (2013).

[11]. Binance Smart Chain's consensus algorithm. https://github.com/bnb-chain/whitepaper/blob/master/WHITEPAPER.md#proof-of-staked-authority (2020).

[12]. Schwartz, D., Youngs, N., & Britto, A. The ripple protocol consensus algorithm. Ripple Labs Inc White Paper, 5(8), 151 (2014).

[13]. Eyal, I., & Sirer, E. G. Majority is not enough: Bitcoin mining is vulnerable. In International conference on financial cryptography and data security (pp. 436-454). Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg (2014).

[14]. Natoli, C., & Gramoli, V. The balance attack against proof-of-work blockchains: The R3 testbed as an example. arXiv preprint arXiv:1612.09426 (2016).

[15]. The P + epsilon Attack. https://blog.ethereum.org/2015/01/28/p-epsilon-attack/ (2015).

[16]. Heilman, E., Kendler, A., Zohar, A., & Goldberg, S. Eclipse Attacks on {Bitcoin’s}{Peer-to-Peer} Network. In 24th USENIX Security Symposium (USENIX Security 15) (pp. 129-144) (2015).

[17]. Niu, J., & Feng, C. Selfish mining in ethereum. arXiv preprint arXiv:1901.04620 (2019).

[18]. Schwarz-Schilling, C., Neu, J., Monnot, B., Asgaonkar, A., Tas, E. N., & Tse, D. Three Attacks on Proof-of-Stake Ethereum. arXiv preprint arXiv:2110.10086 (2021).

[19]. Gaži, P., Kiayias, A., & Russell, A. Stake-bleeding attacks on proof-of-stake blockchains. In 2018 Crypto Valley conference on Blockchain technology (CVCBT) (pp. 85-92). IEEE (2018).

[20]. The Environmental Impact of Bitcoin Mining. https://coincentral.com/what-is-the-environmental-impact-of-bitcoin-mining/ (2018).

[21]. Castro, M., & Liskov, B. Practical Byzantine fault tolerance and proactive recovery. ACM Transactions on Computer Systems (TOCS), 20(4), 398-461 (2002).

[22]. Proof of stake instead of proof of work. https://bitcointalk.org/index.php?topic=27787 (2011)..

[23]. Peercoin & Proof of Stake Consensus. https://github.com/peercoin/PeercoinUniversity/blob/master/app/assets/docs/09-peercoin-and-proof-of-stake-consensus.md (2019).

[24]. Chia Consensus. https://docs.chia.net/docs/03consensus/consensus_intro (2022).

[25]. ppcoin - stake burn-through vulnerability. https://bitcointalk.org/index.php?topic=131901.0 (2012).

[26]. NXT POS Block Skipping Attack Myth. https://hackernoon.com/nxt-pos-block-skipping-attack-myth-de88cf4b3363 (2018).

[27]. NXT blockchain platform. https://www.jelurida.com/nxt (2022).

[28]. Ethereum Wiki. https://eth.wiki/concepts/proof-of-stake-faqs (2022).

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