1. Introduction

Learning motivation is the main driving force that determines whether students actively engage in learning, persist in their studies, and how they face challenges, playing a crucial role in shaping their learning behaviors and academic achievements. Prior research has established that learning motivation, which is vital to students’ academic trajectories, is influenced by a range of factors, including personal traits like personality and self-efficacy, as well as familial, environmental, and socio-cultural conditions. From a theoretical perspective, behaviorism emphasizes external rewards and punishments as the core factors of learning, cognitivism places particular emphasis on goal setting and attribution theory, while constructivism argues that knowledge is socialized through social interaction [1-3]. Numerous studies have examined the factors influencing learning motivation, yet the ways in which intrinsic and extrinsic motivation complement each other, the specific environmental factors that trigger motivation, and the most effective educational interventions remain unclear. Therefore, this study aims to identify the variables that affect learning motivation and explore the underlying processes via which they influence learning behaviors and academic outcomes. Through a literature review and case analysis, it boosts the understanding of learning motivation, providing insights for developing effective teaching strategies, particularly in the context of technology-enhanced education.

2. Overview of educational psychology and learning motivation

2.1. Basic concepts of educational psychology

Educational psychology studies individuals’ behavior, cognition, and emotions in instructional contexts, aiming to uncover the psychological mechanisms that mediate the impact of various factors on learning outcomes. It has developed several empirically supported models since its inception, with behaviorism, cognitivism, and constructivism serving as the foundational theories for understanding and enhancing learning motivation.

Behaviorism argues that learning motivation is largely shaped by the learner’s environment and the reinforcement for specific actions, which may include material rewards, ideas, and social recognition [1]. While positive reinforcement can boost motivation, negative feedback may lead to disengagement. However, behaviorism’s focus on external control can make learners dependent on external rewards, reducing their intrinsic motivation. In addition, cognitivism emphasizes the importance of goal-setting, self-concept, and attribution in motivating learners [2]. Research has shown that learners with a strong sense of self-efficacy are more willing to face learning challenges and typically adopt deep learning strategies, such as critical thinking and connecting knowledge. Similarly, attribution theory suggests that when students attribute their academic success to their own efforts, rather than external factors such as luck, they are more likely to persist in their learning and stay motivated to progress. Moreover, constructivism views learning as an active process of constructing knowledge, with motivation shaped by social, cultural, and environmental factors. Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory emphasizes the role of peer learning and interactive teaching in motivation cultivation. Studies have found that cooperative learning environments can enhance students’ autonomy and sense of belonging, thus boosting learning motivation [4]. In modern education, constructivist theory is commonly used in problem-based learning (PBL) and gamification to enhance engagement. In other words, these theories collectively provide the foundation for understanding learning motivation: behaviorism targets short-term goals, cognitivism promotes a long-term achievement mindset, and constructivism highlights the influence of social and cultural factors on motivation.

2.2. Definition and classification of learning motivation

Learning motivation is the psychological force that drives individuals to engage in, persist with, and achieve their learning goals, shaping both the intensity and strategies of their learning [5]. It is typically divided into two categories: intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation. However, these two types of motivation are interconnected and evolve over time, rather than being completely opposed [6]. Intrinsic motivation arises from an individual’s interest in the learning content, curiosity, or desire for challenge. For example, students read because of their passion for literature, not for external rewards. Research has shown that intrinsic motivation is closely linked to deep learning strategies, long-term knowledge retention, and autonomous learning, while also fostering creativity and critical thinking, which in turn enhances learning persistence [7,8].

Extrinsic motivation, on the other hand, originates from external stimuli and is often associated with rewards such as social recognition or competition. These rewards may include scholarships, test scores, or parental expectations. In task-oriented learning or educational settings with clear goals, extrinsic motivation can effectively enhance short-term academic performance. However, this motivation can lead to the overjustification effect, where removing external rewards may result in a loss of interest. Despite its lower effectiveness for long-term learning, extrinsic motivation often complements intrinsic motivation in real learning contexts. For example, students may start studying a subject due to exam pressure (extrinsic motivation) and later develop genuine interest (intrinsic motivation). Similarly, they may lose motivation from subjects like physics or join extracurricular activities for college applications, later developing a genuine passion. Conversely, a passionate math student may lose interest due to academic pressure. Thus, motivation is impacted by the environment, tasks, and personal experiences, so teaching strategies should focus on boosting extrinsic motivation at first and gradually nurturing intrinsic motivation to make the learning process more meaningful and rewarding [9].

3. The exploration of factors affecting learning motivation

A range of internal and external factors, from students' individual characteristics to the influence of the social environment, contribute to the development of learning motivation. A thorough exploration of these factors can offer valuable insights into effectively enhancing students’ motivation via improved educational design.

3.1. The impact of individual differences on motivation

Individual differences are essential in determining the formation of learning motivation. Factors such as students’ personality traits, emotional states, and cognitive capabilities intricately interact to influence the intensity and character of their motivation to participate in learning endeavors [7]. Personality traits, for instance, can significantly affect how students approach learning. Extroverted students typically excel in social or interactive learning environments, while introverted students often depend more on intrinsic motivation and self-directed goals. Besides, emotional states are pivotal in shaping motivation. Positive emotions, including self-confidence and curiosity, can enhance engagement, whereas negative emotions, such as anxiety and frustration, may undermine the drive to learn. Furthermore, cognitive abilities influence how students process information and approach learning tasks. Those with higher cognitive skills are more likely to adopt deep, reflective learning strategies and engage in self-directed study, while students with lower cognitive abilities may be more reliant on external rewards to sustain their motivation [10]. Collectively, these individual differences not only impact the learning strategies students employ but also shape their responses to external incentives and their persistence in learning pursuits [11]. Therefore, a nuanced understanding of these factors is essential for developing effective, personalized educational interventions that enhance learning outcomes.

3.2. The impact of environmental factors on motivation

Learning motivation is shaped not only by intrinsic individual factors but by external environmental variables, which play a key role in its formation and sustained engagement. Key elements like family background, educational experiences, and socio-cultural context work in tandem to shape and sustain students’ motivation to learn [12].

Family background serves as an important foundation for learning motivation. Parental education level, family economic status, and cultural capital significantly impact students’ learning behaviors and goal setting [13]. Research shows that families with higher cultural capital tend to foster higher-order learning and intrinsic motivation, while those with fewer resources are more likely to rely on external stimuli, such as rewards or punishments. Additionally, the way parents provide support is also crucial. Autonomy-supportive practices, such as encouraging independent learning, are more likely to stimulate lasting interest in learning than controlling practices, such as mandatory tutoring. Furthermore, learning motivation is directly influenced by school education, particularly through curriculum design, teaching strategies, as well as interactions between teachers and students [9]. For example, cooperative and task-oriented classrooms foster the development of autonomous behaviors while also strengthening students' sense of belonging, acting as catalysts for intrinsic motivation [4]. However, in high-stakes testing environments, combined with intense competition, students tend to rely more on external motivation, often overlooking the intrinsic value of learning [6]. The driving force of learning motivation is also shaped by the broader social culture and education system. The Western education system emphasizes self-directed and interest-driven learning, while East Asian culture places a strong emphasis on social responsibility and external evaluation. In addition, elite education systems focus on fostering intrinsic learning motivation centered around long-term goals, in contrast to test-oriented systems that primarily promote motivation focused on short-term goals [10].

Families, schools, and social culture have never been isolated entities; rather, they are continuously interconnected. Research has shown that when schools support students’ autonomy and parents offer positive reinforcement, students’ learning becomes more effective.In contrast, in resource-constrained areas, learning motivation is more often driven by external factors, such as rewards or effective teacher guidance. Therefore, creating an optimal learning environment, which encompasses both internal and external factors, is key to maintaining and developing sustained learning motivation in students.

4. The mechanism of motivation in shaping students’ learning behavior

Learning motivation serves as both the catalyst for initiating learning activities and a key determinant influencing students’ learning behaviors and academic outcomes through complex mechanisms. In-depth exploration of the underlying mechanisms of learning motivation enables a deeper understanding of how motivation drives learner behavior in various contexts, offering insights that can inform the optimization of educational strategies.

4.1. The relationship between motivation and learning strategies

Learning strategies refer to the various methods students use to learn more efficiently and effectively, but learning motivation can be a significant barrier to selecting the right strategy. While students with high motivation may achieve short-term learning success, deep learning is more often seen in those with lower motivation. Deep learning strategies focus on comprehending and synthesizing knowledge, which fosters critical thinking, problem-solving abilities, and metacognitive control [6]. Research has shown that learners with intrinsic motivation are more likely to actively engage in content exploration and apply self-regulation techniques, such as monitoring and reflecting on their learning progress. Specifically, students who have a strong interest in course content tend to engage in long-term retention study and are more likely to make connections between existing knowledge and new information, fostering higher-order understanding. In contrast, surface learning strategies are mainly employed to achieve short-term goals, such as rote memorization and task-driven practice. Students primarily driven by extrinsic motivation, especially under high exam pressure, tend to focus on memorizing information to quickly achieve good grades rather than understanding the material itself. However, with appropriate teaching guidance, extrinsic motivation can be transformed into more sustainable intrinsic motivation, allowing students to gradually adopt deep learning strategies [4].

4.2. The relationship between motivation and academic achievement

Learning motivation serves a dual function in shaping academic outcomes: it directly affects students’ engagement in learning and indirectly boosts academic achievement by fostering autonomous learning and refining learning strategies [7]. The influence of motivation on academic performance is complex and multifaceted, as it not only affects the quantity of effort students invest but also the quality and depth of their learning approaches. Studies indicate that students with high intrinsic motivation, who engage with the material for the sake of interest and personal satisfaction, tend to adopt deep learning strategies. And these strategies, such as critical thinking, problem-solving, and self-regulation promote long-term retention and deeper comprehension, which further enhance academic persistence and lead to superior performance [11]. For instance, research has demonstrated that students deeply interested in mathematics outperform those motivated only by external rewards, highlighting the critical role of intrinsic interest in academic success [5]. Despite extrinsic motivation providing immediate boosts to academic performance, particularly in contexts where students are driven by the desire for external rewards or the avoidance of negative consequences such as exam pressures or scholarship incentives, it tends to have a more transient impact on learning behavior. When external rewards are removed, students' motivation often declines, as their learning was driven by external factors [4]. Furthermore, the over-reliance on extrinsic incentives can lead to the overjustification effect, in which students begin to undervalue the intrinsic satisfaction of learning, focusing instead on external outcomes such as grades or rewards. This shift can reduce their long-term engagement and interest in the subject matter, ultimately hindering the development of a more profound, self-sustaining motivation for learning [12]. The interplay between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation is crucial for optimizing the learning process. The alignment of both types of motivation boosts engagement, promotes deeper learning strategies, and leads to better academic outcomes. Intrinsic motivation is typically associated with long-term academic success, as it encourages students to learn for the sake of mastery and personal growth, while extrinsic motivation can serve as an effective catalyst for short-term academic goals. The strategic integration of task-oriented learning approaches with performance-based rewards, when applied appropriately, can sustain motivation over time, allowing students to persist in their academic endeavors even when faced with challenges. This combination is key to helping students achieve academic goals while developing skills and motivation for lifelong learning and growth [6].

5. Conclusion

This study investigated the role of learning motivation in students’ learning outcomes and academic performance, focusing on the different aspects of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. The findings show that students typically develop intrinsic motivation, such as a desire to learn for its own sake, which helps them deeply understand the subject matter and achieve long-term success, a key concern for educators. However, extrinsic motivators like rewards or deadlines, typically keep students engaged only in the short term, as they focus on task completion rather than long-term motivation. In contrast, the combination of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation leads to more substantial learning outcomes for students. Additionally, learning motivation is affected by internal factors such as students’ personality, emotions, and cognitive abilities, as well as by external factors such as family environment, teaching methods, and social support. Thus, teachers can enhance student engagement through several strategies: designing more engaging classroom content, offering immediate encouragement and feedback, and providing personalized assistance. These approaches contribute to more effective learning. However, this study has some limitations, such as the relatively narrow scope and context of some studies, which may not fully represent the learning motivation of students from different backgrounds. Future research could explore how technology can boost students’ learning motivation, particularly by examining the characteristics of online learning, and investigate the learning motivation of students from different cultural backgrounds or special groups to better inform educational practices.