1. Introduction

The zone of proximal development, as formulated by renowned Soviet psychologist Lev Vygotsky, is a cornerstone in child development and educational psychology. Vygotsky's seminal work explored the intricate interplay between learning and development in children, emphasizing how the environment and education gradually elevate the psyche from rudimentary to higher mental functions. Central to Vygotsky's theory is the assertion that the scaffolding provided by educators and peers plays a pivotal role in shaping the cognitive abilities of learners. This theory emphasizes the facilitative role of teachers and peers and highlights the notion that effective teaching and learning depend on the activation of students' latent learning potential. The primary research questions guiding this inquiry are: How can educators effectively determine the ZPD for individual learners in English language education? And what teaching methodologies best operationalize the ZPD concept in the classroom to enhance student learning? The paper is structured as follows: Section 2 explores Vygotsky's theory of cognitive development, serving as a theoretical foundation. Then, Section 3 discusses the application of scaffolding teaching in English language learning, followed by Section 4, which expands on personalized teaching practices informed by ZPD. Section 5 examines situational teaching techniques leveraging ZPD for optimal language instruction. Finally, the conclusion evaluates the challenges of implementing ZPD, synthesizes the discussions above, and suggests future directions for professional development and research for educators. The objective is to provide not only theoretical analysis but also practical insights into teaching methodologies. By analyzing each approach, this paper demonstrates the versatility of the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) in teaching situations. This provides educators with a valuable resource as they seek to enhance their teaching methods and promote the convergence of students' potential and actual development.

2. Vygotsky theory of cognitive development

In the 1930s, the field of education saw a variety of ideas and theories about the interplay between education and development. Jean Piaget's perspective powerfully juxtaposed education and development, positing that children's progress followed a natural maturation process that progressed through distinct stages. Conversely, Lev Vygotsky's viewpoint diverged significantly. He argued that human psychological development unfolds as a gradual transformation from rudimentary to higher cognitive functions under the combined influence of environmental factors and education. In particular, Vygotsky argued that higher psychological functions in humans are no longer dictated solely by the laws of biological evolution. This view resonates with the concept of brain embodiment, which affirms the intimate connection between cognitive processes and physiological states. It posits that our cognitive capacities are not solely dependent on the brain, but are also shaped by bodily states and environmental factors [1]. Building on this framework, Vygotsky introduced the concept of the "zone of proximal development" (ZPD). This concept refers to the space between a child's current level of development in solving problems independently and the potential level attainable with adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers. Teaching and learning can bridge any gap between the task and the child's abilities. The ZPD requires two conditions: the difficulty level of the task should be slightly beyond the learner's current ability, and the learner should have the involvement of an adult or more skilled peer. This is critical because the goal of the task is to stretch the learner's abilities, and if it proves too challenging, external support may not be as effective. A task of moderate complexity, within the learner's grasp, serves as a conduit to traverse the next developmental zone, aided by the guidance of a teacher or a more skilled peer [2]. Reham contends that these concepts play a central role in facilitating language acquisition and development. This is achieved through social interaction and collaborative learning, in which learners construct knowledge and understanding and progressively refine their language skills over time [3]. ZPD theory emphasizes the developmental benefits inherent in the processes of teaching and learning and highlights the critical role of teacher mentoring and collaborative learning.

3. Scaffolding teaching

In education, the concept of scaffolding was first introduced by Bruner in 1978, drawing an analogy to the temporary scaffolding used in construction to support a building in progress. Over time, it has become a fundamental concept in educational psychology. Donato further developed the concept, defining it as a scenario in which an individual with expertise creates a supportive environment for a novice participant that fosters a significant advance in their existing knowledge.

Firmly rooted in Vygotsky's theory of the "zone of proximal development," scaffolding is a constructivist, learner-centred approach to teaching and learning. Educators can use various scaffolding techniques, including modeling, feedback, and probing. They can also incorporate contextual, collaborative, and conversational elements into the learning environment to increase student initiative and motivation. The scaffolding provided by the teacher empowers the learner to use various forms of support to complete tasks, gradually reducing the support as the learner gains proficiency. According to Wood et al., scaffolding not only stimulates interest in the task, but also keeps the learner focused on the task objectives, emphasizes critical features, and provides demonstrations and examples [4]. An experimental study showed that implementing scaffolding instruction in English writing significantly improved students' writing skills. Prior to the experiment, students showed limited interest and confidence in English writing. However, after the introduction of scaffolding instruction in the experimental group, the average writing scores showed a significant improvement [5]. Slavin contends that scaffolding enables children to construct and internalize their acquired skills, enabling them to engage at higher cognitive levels [6]. Teacher demonstration is a valuable and common form of scaffolding, especially at the elementary level, where students may not yet be able to process their internal linguistic knowledge.

Scaffolding is of paramount importance in the field of English language learning. Teachers should strive to facilitate collaboration among students of different proficiency levels so weaker students can receive guidance and assistance in internalizing their English knowledge. The teacher assumes a supervisory role in the collaborative process, effectively averting potential problems related to misdirection and internalization. In addition, numerous researchers have categorized scaffolding into different types. Scaffolding can be divided into bi- and unidirectional scaffolding, depending on the nature of the interaction, and also into vertical scaffolding and continuous scaffolding. Other scholars have provided additional classifications based on different perspectives.

4. Personalized teaching

Personalized instruction involves a customized approach in which educators skillfully match students' skill levels with their specific learning needs and goals. This leads to formulating targeted instructional strategies that align with individual knowledge and skills. Differentiated content and methodologies are created to suit the different levels of students, thus facilitating their optimal development. According to the "zone of proximal development" theory, providing content beyond students' understanding can hinder comprehension and cognitive growth. In English language teaching, all students must be encouraged to advance from their previous developmental levels, ensuring equitable progress without compromising the growth of any individual.

The essence of personalized teaching and learning lies in the comprehensive approach to each student. It is crucial to fine-tune the instructional requirements to match the "next developmental zone" at each level of learning. An experimental study conducted by Nazarian confirms that individualized instruction based on the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) has a positive impact on the writing complexity of low scorers. This approach is convenient for low scorers. The study examined the application of ZPD scenarios in increasing writing complexity within an English as a Foreign Language (EFL) program. It involved a comparative analysis of the effectiveness of individual ZPD-based and group-based ZPD instruction for low and high-achieving EFL learners. Pre- and post-tests were administered to assess writing complexity and ZPD levels. Results indicated that individualized ZPD-based instruction significantly benefited low-scoring students, while whole-group ZPD-based instruction had a more limited effect on high-scoring students [7]. Given the diverse facets of English language skills and modules, tailoring instruction is paramount. Weaker students should focus on vocabulary and grammar; average students should emphasize communication skills, and more proficient students should be given opportunities for integrated language use. This approach ensures that each student receives individual attention, their potential is fully explored, and they are motivated to learn English. Recognizing the diverse backgrounds and cognitive abilities of learners, scaffolding should be flexible. For example, students with substantial learning aptitude and a solid foundation can be offered more abstract instruction with fewer scaffolds, and these supports can be gradually withdrawn to empower learners to take ownership of their learning journey as quickly as possible.

5. Situational teaching

Situational teaching involves the deliberate creation of scenarios within highly participatory courses. The goal is to consciously engage students' subconscious minds by asking them to assume different roles and navigate different situations. Through this method, students apply relevant knowledge in different contexts. This approach not only provides a platform for honing language skills but also effectively promotes the integrated development of students' critical thinking and other skills, facilitating their rapid entry into the zone of proximal development. Situational teaching emphasizes the interplay between classroom content and practical application. Through this method, students can grasp basic English concepts with increased efficiency. Various media, such as pictures, videos, or audio, can be used to implement situational teaching. By tailoring the content to these media, students find it easier to connect and empathize with the material. Group activities are a common feature of English language teaching. According to Gillian Brown, these activities provide learners with more time and more opportunities to practice the target language. They also alleviate potential anxiety that learners may experience in language communication activities [8].

6. Conclusion

Based on applying the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) theory in English language teaching, this paper proposes three integral methods: scaffolding teaching, personalized teaching, and situational teaching. However, determining a student's ZPD remains a formidable challenge for teachers because it is an abstract concept. Many teachers may struggle to establish a precise and scientific approach to defining this zone. This task places a premium on teachers' analytical acumen and ability to communicate effectively with students, underscoring the pivotal role they play in identifying each student's unique ZPD. In addition, the operationalization of ZPD theory requires a high level of teaching skills and professional competence. Unfortunately, not all educators meet these high standards. Therefore, it is imperative to support teachers' professional development and refine their teaching skills. In addition, teachers should proactively engage in self-directed learning to cultivate a deeper understanding of ZPD and further enhance their effectiveness in applying this theory in practice.