Download pdf
Social Exclusion and Social Anxiety Disorder: The Temporal Need-threat Model of Ostracism
- 1 The University of Edinburgh
* Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Abstract
Social exclusion, or ostracism, is being excluded or rejected by others. It is the common behaviour within social situations. Detecting social exclusion could be essential for the survival of human creatures, as social exclusion could threaten the basic needs of human creatures: self-esteem and feelings of belongingness. William’s temporal need threat model introduces how individuals react toward ostracism. Usually, individuals can recover from social exclusion quickly by behaving pro-socially to reconnect to others and fortify the basic need(s) threatened by social exclusion. However, for individuals with higher social anxiety or social anxiety disorder, the negative social belief about themselves (unpopular, shyness) within a social situation inhibits their recovery speed from exclusion and desire to reconnect to others. When social exclusion happens, individuals with higher social anxiety or social anxiety disorder become more vulnerable in social situations. Individuals lose their ability to get used to social situations when they suffer long-term social exclusion. Acceptance and Commitment Therapy is suggested to be a helpful therapy for individuals suffering from long-term social exclusion and social anxiety disorder.
Keywords
Social Exclusion, Ostracism, Social Anxiety, Social Anxiety Disorder, The Temporal Need Threat Model
[1]. Twenge, J. M., Baumeister, R. F., Tice, D. M., & Stucke, T. S. (2001). If you can’t join them, beat them: Effects of social exclusion on aggressive behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81(6), 1058–1069. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.81.6.1058
[2]. Williams, K. D. (2007). Ostracism. Annual Review of Psychology, 58(1), 425–452. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.58.110405.085641
[3]. Baumeister, R. F., & Leary, M. R. (1995). The need to belong: Desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation. Psychological Bulletin, 117(3), 497–529. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.117.3.497
[4]. Williams, K. D., & Nida, S. A. (2022). Ostracism and social exclusion: Implications for separation, social isolation, and loss. Current Opinion in Psychology, 47, 101353. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2022.101353
[5]. Maner, J. K., DeWall, C. N., Baumeister, R. F., & Schaller, M. (2007). Does social exclusion motivate interpersonal reconnection? Resolving the “porcupine problem”. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 92(1), 42–55. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514. 92.1.42.
[6]. Eisenberger, N. I. (2012). The neural bases of social pain: Evidence for shared representations with physical pain. Psychosomatic Medicine, 74(2), 126–135. https://doi.org/10.1097/PSY.0b013 e3182464dd1
[7]. Meltzer, H., Bebbington, P., Dennis, M. S., Jenkins, R., McManus, S., & Brugha, T. S. (2012). Feelings of loneliness among adults with mental disorder. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 48(1), 5–13. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-012-0515-8
[8]. Veale, D. (2003). Treatment of social phobia. Advances in psychiatric treatment, 9(4), 258-264. https://doi.org/10.1192/apt.9.4.258
[9]. Coles, M. E., Ravid, A., Gibb, B., George-Denn, D., Bronstein, L. R., & McLeod, S. (2016). Adolescent mental health literacy: young people's knowledge of depression and social anxiety disorder. Journal of Adolescent Health, 58(1), 57-62. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2015.09.017
[10]. Furmark, T. (2002). Social phobia: overview of community surveys. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 105(2), 84-93. https://doi.org/10.1034/j.1600-0447.2002.1r103.x
[11]. Wells, A. (2000). Modifying social anxiety: A cognitive approach. Shyness: Development, consolidation, and change. London: Routledge
[12]. Tice, D. M. (1992). Self-concept change and self-presentation: The looking glass self is also a magnifying glass. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 63(3), 435-451. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.63.3.435
[13]. Schuster, T. L., Kessler,R.C., & Aseltine,R.H.(1990). Supportive interactions,negative interactions, and depressed mood. American Journal of Community Psychology, 18(3), 423–438.
[14]. Cacioppo, J. T., & Hawkley, L. C. (2009). Perceived social isolation and cognition. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 13(10), 447–454.
[15]. Cacioppo, J. T., Hawkley, L. C., & Thisted, R.A. (2010). Perceived social isolation makes me sad: 5-year cross-lagged analyses of loneliness and depressive symptomatology in the Chicago Health, Aging, and Social Relations Study. Psychology and Aging, 25(2), 453–463.
[16]. Stein, M. B., & Stein, D. J. (2008). Social anxiety disorder. Lancet, 371(9618), 1115–1125.
[17]. Williams, K. D. (2009). Ostracism: A temporal need‐threat model. Advances in experimental social psychology, 41, 275-314.
[18]. Zadro, L., Williams, K. D., & Richardson, R. (2004). How low can you go? Ostracism by a computer lowers belonging, control, self-esteem, and meaningful existence. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 40, 560–567.
[19]. Eisenberger, N. I., Lieberman, M. D., & Williams, K. D. (2003). Does rejection hurt? An f MRI study of social exclusion. Science, 302, 290–292.
[20]. Bagg, D., & Williams, K. D. (2008). The sympathetic effects of witnessing ostracism, Chicago: Presented at the Midwestern Psychological Association
[21]. Coyne, S. M., Nelson, D. A., Robinson, S. L., & Gundersen, N. C. (2011). Is viewing ostracism on television distressing? The Journal of Social Psychology, 151(3), 213–217. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224540903365570
[22]. Haselton, M. G., & Buss, D. M. (2000). Error management theory: A new perspective on biases cross-sex mind reading. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78, 81–91.
[23]. Leary, M. R., Tambor, E. S., Terdal, S. K., & Downs, D. L. (1995). Self-esteem as an interpersonal monitor: The sociometer hypothesis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 68, 518–530.
[24]. Hogg, M. A., & Vaughan, G. M. (2010). Essentials of social psychology. Pearson.
[25]. Stillman, T. F., Baumeister, R. F., Lambert, N. M., Crescioni, A. W., DeWall, C. N., & Fincham, F. D. (2009). Alone and without purpose: Life loses meaning following social exclusion. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 45(4), 686–694. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2009.03.007
[26]. Greenberg, J., Solomon, S., Pyszczynski, T., Rosenblatt, A., Burling, J., Lyon, D., Simon, L., & Pinel, E. (1992). Why do people need self-esteem? Converging evidence that self-esteem serves an anxiety-buffering function. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 63, 913–922.
[27]. Zadro, L., Boland, C., & Richardson, R. (2006). How long does it last? the persistence of the effects of ostracism in the socially anxious. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 42(5), 692–697. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2005.10.007
[28]. Oaten, M. R., Williams, K. D., Jones, A., & Zadro, L. (2008). The effects of ostracism on selfregulation in the socially anxious. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 27, 471–404.
[29]. Ayduk, O., Gyurak, A., & Luerssen, A. (2007). Individual differences in the rejection aggression link in the hot sauce paradigm: The case of rejection sensitivity. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 44, 775–782.
[30]. Fung, K., & Alden, L. E. (2017). Once hurt, twice shy: Social pain contributes to social anxiety. Emotion, 17(2), 231–239. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0000223
[31]. Hudd, T., & Moscovitch, D. A. (2021). Reconnecting in the face of exclusion: Individuals with high social anxiety may feel the push of social pain, but not the pull of social rewards. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 46(2), 420–435. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10608-021-10263-z
[32]. Maner, J. K., DeWall, C. N., Baumeister, R. F., & Schaller, M. (2007). Does social exclusion motivate interpersonal reconnection? Resolving the “porcupine problem.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 92(1), 42–55. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022- 3514.92.1.42
[33]. DeWall, C. N., & Richman, S. B. (2011). Social Exclusion and the desire to reconnect. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 5(11), 919–932. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-9004.2011.00383.x
[34]. Mallott, M. A., Maner, J. K., DeWall, N., & Schmidt, N. B. (2009). Compensatory deficits following rejection: The role of social anxiety in disrupting affiliative behavior. Depression and Anxiety, 26(5), 438–446. https://doi.org/10.1002/da.20555
[35]. Mead, N. L., Baumeister, R. F., Stillman, T. F., Rawn, C. D., & Vohs, K. D. (2011). Social exclusion causes people to spend and consume strategically in the service of affiliation. Journal of Consumer Research, 37(5), 902–919. https://doi.org/10.1086/ 656667
[36]. Hudd, T., & Moscovitch, D. A. (2020). Coping with social wounds: How social pain and social anxiety influence access to social rewards. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 68, 101572. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. jbtep.2020.101572
[37]. Steinman, S. A., Gorlin, E. I., & Teachman, B. A. (2014). Cognitive biases among individuals with social anxiety. The Wiley Blackwell handbook of social anxiety disorder, 321-343. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118653920.ch15
[38]. Hudd, T., & Moscovitch, D. A. (2021). Reconnecting in the face of exclusion: Individuals with high social anxiety may feel the push of social pain, but not the pull of social rewards. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 46(2), 420–435. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10608-021-10263-z
[39]. DeWall, C. N., Buckner, J. D., Lambert, N. M., Cohen, A. S., & Fincham, F. D. (2010). Bracing for the worst, but behaving the best: Social anxiety, hostility, and behavioral aggression. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 24(2), 260–268. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. janxdis.2009.12.002
[40]. Hudd, T., & Moscovitch, D. A. (2023). Social anxiety inhibits needs repair following exclusion in both relational and non-relational reward contexts: The mediating role of positive affect. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 162, 104270. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2023.104270
[41]. Baumeister, R. F., DeWall, C. N., Ciarocco, N. L., & Twenge, J. M. (2006). Social exclusion impairs self-regulation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 88, 589–604.
[42]. Gross, J. J. (1998). The emerging field of emotion regulation: An integrative review. Review of General Psychology, 2(3), 271–299. https://doi.org/10.1037/1089- 2680.2.3.271
[43]. Gross, J. J., & Jazaieri, H. (2014). Emotion, emotion regulation, and psychopathology: An affective science perspective. Clinical Psychological Science, 2, 387–401. https:// doi.org/10.1177/2167702614536164
[44]. Dryman, M. T., & Heimberg, R. G. (2018). Emotion regulation in social anxiety and depression: A systematic review of expressive suppression and cognitive reappraisal. Clinical Psychology Review, 65, 17–42. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2018.07.004
[45]. Goodman, F. R., Daniel, K. E., Eldesouky, L., Brown, B. A., & Kneeland, E. T. (2021). How do people with social anxiety disorder manage daily stressors? Deconstructing emotion regulation flexibility in daily life. Journal of Affective Disorders Reports, 6, 100210. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadr.2021.100210
[46]. Goodman, F. R., Kashdan, T. B., Stiksma, M. C., & Blalock, D. V. (2019). Personal strivings to understand anxiety disorders: Social anxiety as an exemplar. Clinical Psychological Science, 7(2), 283–301. https://doi.org/10.1177/2167702618804778
[47]. Kring, A. M. (2000). Gender and anger. In A. H. Fischer (Ed.), Studies in emotion and social interaction (2nd ed., pp. 211–231). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/ 10.1017/CBO9780511628191.011.
[48]. Erwin, B. A., Heimberg, R. G., Schneier, F. R., & Liebowitz, M. R. (2003). Anger experience and expression in social anxiety disorder: Pretreatment profile and predictors of attrition and response to cognitive-behavioral treatment. Behavior Therapy, 34(3), 331–350. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0005-7894(03)80004-7
[49]. Conrad, R., Forstner, A. J., Chung, M.-L., Mücke, M., Geiser, F., Schumacher, J., & Carnehl, F. (2021). Significance of anger suppression and preoccupied attachment in social anxiety disorder: a cross-sectional study. BMC Psychiatry, 21(1), 116. https:// doi.org/10.1186/s12888-021-03098-1
[50]. Bielak, T., & Moscovitch, D. A. (2012). Friend or foe? Memory and expectancy biases for faces in social anxiety. Journal of Experimental Psychopathology, 3, 42e61. http://dx.doi.org/10.5127/jep.019711.
[51]. Moscovitch, D. A., Rowa, K., Paulitzki, J. R., Ierullo, M. D., Chiang, B., Antony, M. M., & McCabe, R. E. (2013). Self-portrayal concerns and their relation to safety behaviors and negative affect in social anxiety disorder. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 51(8), 476–486.
[52]. Goodman, F. R., Rum, R., Silva, G., & Kashdan, T. B. (2021). Are people with social anxiety disorder happier alone? Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 84, 102474. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.janxdis.2021.102474
[53]. DeWall, C. N., MacDonald, G., Webster, G. D., Tice, D. M., & Baumeister, R. F. (2008). Acetaminophen reduces psychological hurt feelings over time. Manuscript under review.
[54]. Caletti, E., Massimo, C., Magliocca, S., Moltrasio, C., Brambilla, P., & Delvecchio, G. (2022). The role of the acceptance and commitment therapy in the treatment of social anxiety: An updated scoping review. Journal of Affective Disorders, 310, 174–182. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2022.05.008
[55]. Mayo-Wilson, E., Dias, S., Mavranezouli, I., Kew, K., Clark, D.M., Ades, A.E., Pilling, S., 2014. Psychological and pharmacological interventions for social anxiety disorder in adults: a systematic review and network meta-analysis. Lancet Psychiatry 1 (5), 368–376. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2215-0366(14)70329-3
[56]. Hayes, S. C., Pistorello, J., & Levin, M. E. (2012). Acceptance and commitment therapy as a unified model of behavior change. The Counseling Psychologist, 40(7), 976-1002. https://doi. org/10.1177/0011000012460836.
[57]. Hayes, S. C., Luoma, J. B., Bond, F. W., Masuda, A., & Lillis, J. (2006). Acceptance and commitment therapy: Model, processes and outcomes. Behaviour research and therapy, 44(1), 1-25. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2005.06.006
[58]. Luoma, J. B., Hayes, S. C., & Walser, R. D. (2007). Learning ACT: An acceptance & commitment therapy skills-training manual for therapists. New Harbinger Publications.
Cite this article
Chen,Z. (2024). Social Exclusion and Social Anxiety Disorder: The Temporal Need-threat Model of Ostracism. Lecture Notes in Education Psychology and Public Media,38,148-156.
Data availability
The datasets used and/or analyzed during the current study will be available from the authors upon reasonable request.
Disclaimer/Publisher's Note
The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of EWA Publishing and/or the editor(s). EWA Publishing and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.
About volume
Volume title: Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Social Psychology and Humanity Studies
© 2024 by the author(s). Licensee EWA Publishing, Oxford, UK. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license. Authors who
publish this series agree to the following terms:
1. Authors retain copyright and grant the series right of first publication with the work simultaneously licensed under a Creative Commons
Attribution License that allows others to share the work with an acknowledgment of the work's authorship and initial publication in this
series.
2. Authors are able to enter into separate, additional contractual arrangements for the non-exclusive distribution of the series's published
version of the work (e.g., post it to an institutional repository or publish it in a book), with an acknowledgment of its initial
publication in this series.
3. Authors are permitted and encouraged to post their work online (e.g., in institutional repositories or on their website) prior to and
during the submission process, as it can lead to productive exchanges, as well as earlier and greater citation of published work (See
Open access policy for details).