1. Introduction

Virtual reality represents an engaging and interactive simulated environment, generated by computer technology, where users can interact through various sensory modalities, including tactile feedback and spatial awareness.[1]. One key aspect of VR is the feeling of being physically present in a scene, called “presence” [2]. VR systems consist of hardware like head-mounted displays, sensors, and controllers, along with software to simulate these environments. Recently, advances in graphics and sensor technologies have made VR increasingly applicable in education.

Metaverse is a shared virtual space combining virtual reality, augmented reality, blockchain, and other technologies, allowing users to interact and create content in an interconnected virtual world through virtual characters. While the idea holds promise, it is crucial to emphasize that a fully functioning Metaverse has not yet come into existence [3]. Its contemporary evolution is anchored in cutting-edge technologies like virtual reality (VR), augmented reality (AR), blockchain, and artificial intelligence (AI). Blockchain serves as a robust security framework for digital assets, while AR amplifies the engagement between the physical environment and the digital realm. Augmented Reality (AR) intricately overlays synthetic components, including three-dimensional objects, multimedia content, or textual information, onto visual representations of the real world [4], increasing its possibilities of interaction with the user. The integration of digital technologies has escalated across all educational tiers, as educators implement these tools to enhance the learning experience for their students. [5]. VR provides an intuitive learning experience through immersive environments, while meta-universe breaks through geographic and physical boundaries by integrating the virtual and the real to build decentralized digital platforms. The conversations and anticipations related to the Metaverse must be moderated by the awareness that the achievement of this revolutionary digital transformation is still ongoing, with numerous obstacles and challenges yet to be confronted in its evolution and execution [6]. Therefore, this review will explore the current status, advantages, and challenges of VR and metaverse in education, with a view to informing future educational innovations.

2. Technical foundations for the realization of virtual reality and metauniverse

2.1. Technical basis for the realization of virtual reality

The technological basis of virtual reality includes hardware, software, and tracking technologies. On the hardware side, VR systems typically consist of a head-mounted display (HMD), motion controllers, sensors, and sometimes an external camera, where the HMD provides an immersive visual experience and the motion controllers allow the user to interact with the virtual environment. Regarding software, VR applications and platforms use a graphics engine (such as Unity or Unreal Engine) to create a virtual environment and handle user input and interaction. Tracking technology, on the other hand, uses sensors and cameras to track the user's position and movements, ensuring that the virtual world is synchronized with the user's movements in real time. Virtual realities function as immersive educational settings (virtual reality learning environments [VRLE]) where participants engage with peers while executing a designated series of tasks. [7].

2.2. Technical basis for the realization of the metaverse

Currently, the notion of the metaverse is intertwined with the crypto-metaverse and Web3, as it integrates blockchain into its foundational technology and economic framework, offering subsequent advantages such as the decentralization of the economy and enhanced data storage efficiency. [8]. The realization of metaverse technology relies on several core foundations. First, virtual world platforms (e.g., Decentraland and The Sandbox) provide integrated virtual environments that support user-generated content, virtual economic activity, and social interaction. Second, blockchain technology ensures the security of virtual asset management and transactions, and supports the use of virtual currencies and NFTs (non-homogenized tokens). Unlike traditional “fungible” assets like Bitcoin, Ethereum, MANA, or SAND tokens, NFTs are classified as distinct blockchain-based cryptographic assets that cannot be bartered on a one-to-one basis (for instance, in-game items, real estate parcels, or any collectible). As a result, NFTs are characterized by their uniqueness and are “non-fungible.” [9]. Nevertheless, akin to cryptocurrencies, NFTs lack intrinsic value, as they merely represent units of digital information.[10]. In order to achieve a consistent cross-platform experience, the meta-universe design needs to be compatible with different devices, including desktop, mobile and VR devices. In addition, big data processing and cloud computing technology play an important role in Metaverse, which realizes seamless data transformation through data cloud, resource cloud and service cloud, promotes the construction of intelligent service system, and realizes dynamic and accurate service and resource sharing. Certainly, while some writers associate the metaverse with Web3 frameworks, including blockchain technology, decentralized autonomous organizations (DAOs), cryptocurrencies, and non-fungible tokens (NFTs), I acknowledge the intricacies involved in these connections. [11]. The future construction of the metaverse remains ambiguous, as it could potentially be realized within the frameworks of either Web3 or traditional Web2 technologies. [12]. The metaverse integrates blockchain, with its technical foundation including virtual world platforms, blockchain for asset security, multi-device compatibility, and big data/cloud computing. It has innovation and economic opportunities but also faces issues like value instability and technological immaturity, and its development direction under Web3/Web2 is unclear.

3. Pedagogical and psychological perspectives on virtual reality and metaverse in education

The metacosmos shapes the three-dimensional spatial field of online education for visual immersion, and the relevant theories supporting its scientific development will shift from disembodiment to embodiment. To summarize, embodied cognition theory, distributed cognition theory, situated cognition theory, socio-cultural theory, constructivism and immersion theory provide theoretical insights for the application of metaverse in education. In a similar manner, virtual reality serves as a motivator, fostering a constructive disposition among students regarding the incorporation of VR into their educational experiences. [13].The synthesis of virtual online education with established educational theories carries multiple profound implications. For learners, it has the potential to enrich the educational experience, foster autonomous collaboration, and facilitate personalized learning pathways. For instructors, it serves as a catalyst for innovative pedagogical strategies and enables precise assessments of student performance. Furthermore, it advances educational equity and encourages innovation, aligning with the evolving demands of talent in the contemporary era.

3.1. Embodied cognition theory

The theory of embodied cognition suggests that cognitive processes are not limited to the brain, but are closely related to bodily perception, movement, and interaction with the environment. In a virtual learning environment, participants actively interact with the ongoing activities instead of merely being passive recipients of information. [14]. The theory emphasizes that the body and the environment work together to influence our cognitive experiences and how we learn. Metacosmos-supported and empowered online education allows learners to immerse themselves in a broader socio-cultural context, fully mobilize their sensory-motor systems and interact with the environment in an embodied manner, in order to better facilitate their cognitive formation.

3.2. Distributed cognition theory

Distributed Cognition Theory, proposed by Edwin Hutchins, emphasizes that cognition does not only take place within the individual's brain, but is distributed between the individual, tools, the environment and social interactions. [15]. In other words, the cognitive process is a collective activity that depends not only on the internal thinking of the individual, but also on external physical and social resources. Information flows through human-tool, human-environment, and human-human interactions, and through these channels to support and extend human cognitive abilities. Distributed Cognition Theory has two implications for online education based on the meta-universe: first, it provides guidance for the selection and design of learning resources, learning tools, and learning activities in the meta-universe environment; and second, it focuses on the interactions between individuals learners.

3.3. Situated cognition theory

Situated Cognition Theory emphasizes that the learning of knowledge and skills does not occur in isolation, but is closely linked to specific situations, environments and social practices. According to this theory, cognitive processes are contextualized, and learners acquire and apply knowledge by engaging in authentic situations and practices. Situated cognition has adopted a more expansive, functionalist, and pragmatist philosophical perspective concerning human behavior. [16]. Virtual Reality (VR) technology can provide an ideal platform for the application of Situated Cognition Theory because it can create realistic, immersive learning environments that allow learners to learn and practice in highly contextualized virtual scenarios.

3.4. Constructivism

Constructivism is a theory of learning that emphasizes that learners construct new understandings based on prior knowledge through active exploration and experience. Constructivism recognizes that learning is an active process in which learners interact with knowledge in real-world situations and construct their own cognitive frameworks through reflection and experience. Collaborative learning is the most valuable method of active learning. Collaborative learning is a pedagogical strategy utilized by educators to enhance the learning experience and improve student outcomes. It fosters the development of critical thinking skills among learners. [17]. Virtual technologies encourage students to be active learners, because VR/AR promotes decision-taking when interacting with virtual environments, permitting autonomous exploration, understanding complex concepts, creating new experiences, and learning by doing. Moreover, interactive engagement facilitates immediate visualization of outcomes, enabling learners to make informed decisions grounded in these results, thereby enhancing their educational achievements and cognitive abilities. [18].

3.5. Immersion theory

Immersion theory (also known as "mind-flow theory") is proposed by Mihalyi Csiksczentmihalyi and others to describe the psychological state in which a person is fully engaged in an activity, unaffected by other factors in the surrounding environment and achieves a state of extreme pleasure. Immersion theory articulates the "immersed" condition of learners' engagement in activities, serving as a valuable reference and guiding framework for the development of educational activities, learning assignments, and inquiry-based projects within the online educational landscape enhanced by the metaverse, thereby augmenting learners' sense of participation and motivation in online learning environments.

4. Social and ethical perspectives on the use of virtual reality technology in education

4.1. Social ethical questions

In virtual reality (VR) and meta-universe applications, socio-ethical issues center on privacy and data security, mental health, and the boundaries between virtual and reality. First, these technologies often require the collection of personal, behavioral, and physiological data from users, which, while contributing to system optimization, may also raise the risk of privacy breaches, so ensuring data security and preventing unauthorized access are key ethical issues. Second, prolonged use of VR may lead to "virtual reality fatigue" or psychological dependence, affecting users' real lives and mental health. In addition, content in virtual environments needs to consider the appropriateness for users of different ages and psychological states to avoid negative impacts.

Technological divide may lead to differences in equipment and Internet access across regions and households, which in turn may exacerbate the unequal distribution of educational resources. Engaging in virtual socialization within meta-universes has the potential to broaden interpersonal networks; however, it may simultaneously diminish the frequency of direct, in-person interactions, thereby impacting the cultivation of essential social competencies. Also, while meta-universes can create global virtual communities, they may also lead to social isolation in the virtual world. Finally, VR and meta-universes have the potential to change traditional teaching methods and lead to opportunities for educational innovation, but they may also challenge existing educational models.

4.2. Accessibility

Regarding the accessibility of virtual reality (VR) and the metaverse, the main issues are related to the accessibility of technology, the diversity and localization of content, and the adaptability of educational resources. First, the cost and technical requirements of VR devices may limit the widespread use of the technology. Meanwhile, stable high-speed Internet connections are fundamental to the use of the technology. However, in remote areas or developing countries, the lack of network infrastructure may affect the spread of the technology. The implementation of cutting-edge technologies does not inherently require pedagogical innovations; it is essential to construct Virtual Learning Environments (VLEs) by prioritizing pedagogical affordances to optimize educational outcomes.[19].

5. Future outlook

The outlook for virtual reality (VR) technology in education is full of promise and challenges. As technology advances, future educational environments are expected to achieve higher levels of immersion and interactivity, greatly enriching the learning experience. Future virtual reality education is expected to achieve enhanced personalization and greater adaptability. Through advanced AI algorithms, VR systems are able to provide tailored learning paths and content based on each student's learning progress and needs, making education more precise and efficient.

Second, with the reduction of hardware costs and the popularization of technology, VR education is expected to break through the limitations of traditional teaching modes and achieve resource sharing and educational equity on a global scale. No matter where they are, students can access top educational resources and experts through VR technology, participate in virtual experiments and interactive learning, and break the constraints of geographical and economic conditions on education.

However, for VR/AR to become popular, content is required. These contents may offer virtual experiences in many sectors, such as education, logistics or medicine. The advancement of contemporary applications has enabled the conversion of Virtual and Augmented Reality into valuable tools, such as simulators for training in professions that demand precision, including surgical procedures or maintenance within high-risk environments like nuclear power plants. [20].

6. Conclusion

In the upcoming years, virtual technologies are poised to transform interpersonal interactions, and immersive experiences are set to become an integral component of the educational process across all tiers, from elementary to tertiary education. Virtual reality technology and meta-universes offer tremendous potential for innovation in online education, demonstrating unique advantages in enhancing the immersion, interactivity, and personalization of the learning experience. VR technology provides students with immersive learning environments by simulating real-world scenarios that aid in the understanding of complex concepts and the development of practical skills. The Metaverse, conversely, enables a globally integrated collaborative learning environment and resource sharing through the establishment of a virtual educational community that transcends geographical and cultural barriers. Combining the theories of pedagogy with virtual reality and meta-universe technology points to a more focused direction for the development of virtual reality technology in education. Virtual learning experiences should not focus exclusively on knowledge acquisition; thus, these educational environments must be designed from a constructivist standpoint to fully harness the advantages of the learning process. Promoting the development of virtual reality technologies from a policy perspective can also increase the scope of virtual reality use in education.

However, there are still many challenges to the widespread use of these technologies. Ethical issues, social impacts and accessibility issues need to be further researched and addressed. In particular, data privacy, educational equity, and accessibility of technological devices will directly affect the sustainable development of these technologies in education. In the coming years, as technology continues to evolve and educational paradigms shift, the integration of virtual reality and the metaverse within the educational sector holds significant potential. However, the realization of this promise hinges on a profound fusion of technological innovation and pedagogical practices, along with a collective commitment from all stakeholders to address pertinent social and ethical challenges.